db.json

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                  "insert": "- When identifying what something is based on an image, substantiate your answer with evidence based on theory. For instance, in this question, it was not enough to say that is is a carbohydrate molecules, I also needed to support that claim with theory based on the diagram. For instance, I could have included that the bonds are peptides (*CHECK*) or that there is no (*CHECK*) atoms...\n\n- Nail your hypothesis before a SAC, and don't change it on a whim because you think you're adding something that you'd forgotten. In this question, I stated that once the protein denatured, no colour change would be visible, which is false because not all of the protein would denature, so some colour change would still be visible. I would have been more correct stating simply \"...until a certain point\"\n\n- This question based on graphs should have been easy if I had reconsidered the graphs based on what I did know, rather than worrying too much about being confused. I knew that if there was more energy after a reaction than before, it must have lost energy and thus could have connected it with vocabulary definitions. - Don't leave questions blank. If you mean to come back to something, make sure you do. In this case, I could have gotten some small marks here, but instead was caught on a larger mark but more difficult question at the end of the SAC, and thus didn't have time to come back and get easy marks.\n"
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      },
      {
        "title": "Induced fit / Lock and key",
        "tags": [],
        "pages": [],
        "id": "fpmdaWL8"
      },
      {
        "title": "Phospholipid bilayer structure",
        "tags": [],
        "pages": [],
        "id": "7uDXyQAj"
      },
      {
        "title": "Structural hierarchy",
        "tags": [],
        "pages": [],
        "id": "9jzERe5u"
      },
      {
        "title": "Lac Operon",
        "tags": [],
        "pages": [
          {
            "type": "text",
            "qtext": {
              "ops": [
                {
                  "insert": {
                    "image": "/qimg/Lac Operon 0.jpg"
                  }
                },
                {
                  "insert": "\n"
                }
              ]
            }
          }
        ],
        "id": "Bew4jUfd"
      },
      {
        "title": "Cell signalling",
        "tags": [],
        "pages": [
          {
            "type": "text",
            "qtext": {
              "ops": [
                {
                  "insert": "Khan academy intro video"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "header": 2
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": {
                    "video": "https://www.youtube.com/embed/FQFBygnIONU?showinfo=0"
                  }
                },
                {
                  "insert": "\n"
                }
              ]
            }
          }
        ],
        "id": "Fd6q1hgz"
      },
      {
        "title": "Molecules of life molecules",
        "tags": [],
        "pages": [
          {
            "type": "text",
            "qtext": {
              "ops": [
                {
                  "insert": "Types of biological molecules"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "Water, proteins, lipids, nucleic acids, carbohydrates"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "indent": 1,
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": " \nThere are several ways of expressing a molecules structural formulas. Straight form, ring form, ball and stick model, space filling model"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": " \nOrganical compounds contain"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "Carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, sulfer"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "indent": 1,
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "Bonds between dfferent molecules are called hydrogen bonds"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "A water molecule has a slight positive charge on the hydrogens and a slight negative charge on the oxygen."
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "Hydrogen bonding is also important in the formation of proteins and nucelic acids, eg - DNA"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": " \nFunctional groups"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "Determine the characteristics and chemical reactivity of molecules. Hydroxyl, Carbonyl, Carboxyl, Amino, Sulgydryl, Phosphate, etc."
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": " \n"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "bold": true
                  },
                  "insert": "Need to recognise amino groups and where they are attached"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": " \nOrganic molecules containing amino groups are called amines. Amines are weak bases. The amino group is common to all amino acids, which are in turn the building blocks of proteins."
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": " \nWater provides an environment in which metabolic reactions can take place."
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "Water has a dipole nature, meaning it has two charges. It is polar."
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": " \nWater has many properties which are critical for life."
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "High surface tention"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "indent": 1,
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "Low viscosity"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "indent": 1,
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "Liquid at room temperature"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "indent": 1,
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "Colourless with a high transmission of visible light"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "indent": 1,
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "Strong cohesive properties and high tensile strength"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "indent": 1,
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "Many substances can dissolve in water, it is classifies as a univeral solvent."
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "indent": 1,
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "High latent heat of fusion, significant amounts of energy are required before water will change state"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "indent": 1,
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "Has high latent heat of vaporization."
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "indent": 1,
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "High specific heat capacity, can absorb heat energy."
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "indent": 1,
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "Latent heat - Energy released or absorbed by a body during a constant temperature process, while it is changing state."
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "indent": 1,
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "\nCarbohydrates"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "Family of organic molecules made up of carbon, hydrgogen and oxygen."
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "indent": 1,
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "Some small, simple, others long, forming polymoers"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "indent": 1,
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "Carbohydrates have gen general formula (CH2O)x"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "indent": 1,
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "Simple carbohydrates are generally called sugars. The most common arrangements found in sugar"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "indent": 1,
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "Pentose, five side sugar. Ribose and deoxyribose."
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "indent": 2,
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "Hexose"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "indent": 2,
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "Naturally form rings rather than straight chain structures"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "indent": 2,
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "bold": true
                  },
                  "insert": "Have to recognise them"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "indent": 2,
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "Important as both energy storage molecules asnd as the structural elements inc ells and tissues"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "indent": 1,
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "The structure is closely related to their function"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "indent": 1,
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "Sugars (mono, di, tri saccharides) play a central role in energy storage"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "indent": 2,
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "Carbohydrates are the major component of most plants, (60-90% dry weight)"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "indent": 2,
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "Used as food, fuel, weaving cloth and for building materials (grass as thatch, etc)"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "indent": 1,
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "Monosaccharides"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "indent": 1,
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "Primary energy source for cellular metabolism"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "indent": 2,
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "Single sugar molecules."
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "indent": 2,
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "Include glucose, fructose"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "indent": 2,
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "Generally contain between three and seven carbon atoms in their carbon chains, 6C hexose sugar most common"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "indent": 2,
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "Reducing sugars, meaning they can participate in reduction reactions."
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "indent": 2,
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "Disaccharides"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "indent": 1,
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "Double sugar molecules joined with a glyosidic bond"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "indent": 2,
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "Used as energy sources and as building blocks for larger molecules"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "indent": 2,
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "Convenient way to transport glucose"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "indent": 2,
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "The type of disaccharide formed depends on the monomers involved and whether they are in their alpha or beta form"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "indent": 2,
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "Only a few, like lactose, are classified as reducing sugars."
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "indent": 2,
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "Alpha and beta glucose"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "indent": 1,
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "When alpha glucose molecules join they form starch"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "indent": 2,
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "When beta glucose molecules join together they form cellulose"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "indent": 2,
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "They differ only in the direction that the OH group is pointing"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "indent": 2,
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "Disaccharide examples "
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "bold": true
                  },
                  "insert": "(Know what each are made of)"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "indent": 1,
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "Sucrose (alpha glucose + beta fructose)"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "indent": 2,
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "Maltose (alpha glucose + alpha glucose)"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "indent": 2,
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "Lactose (glucose + galactose)"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "indent": 2,
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "Cellubiose (beta glucose + beta glucose)"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "indent": 2,
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "Hydrolysis"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "indent": 1,
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "Chemical breakdown of a compound due to reaction with water"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "indent": 2,
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "Polysaccharides"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "indent": 1,
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "Cellulose is a glucose polymer. Structural material in plant"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "indent": 2,
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "Made up of chains of beta glucose molecules held together"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "indent": 2,
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "Parallel chains are cross linked by drogen bonds to form bundles with microfibrils"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "indent": 2,
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "Very strong bonds"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "indent": 2,
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "Glycogen"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "indent": 2,
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "Form of energy storage in animals"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "indent": 3,
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "Absorbed into bloodstream with digestions of carbohydrates"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "indent": 3,
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "Carried to the liver and then to all cells"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "indent": 3,
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "If there is excess it is converted to glyogen byh the liver for storage (100g)"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "indent": 3,
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "Muscles can store around 300g"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "indent": 3,
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "Starch"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "indent": 2,
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "Polymer of glucose, made up of long chains of alpha glucose molecules."
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "indent": 3,
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "Contains a mixture of amylose and amylopectin"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "indent": 3,
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "Starch is an energy storage molecules in plants"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "indent": 3,
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "Found cconcentrated in insoluble starch granules within plant cells"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "indent": 4,
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "Easily hydralised to glucose when required"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "indent": 3,
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "Modified polysaccharides"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "indent": 2,
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "Chitin is a tough modified polysaccharide made up of chains of beta glucose molecules"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "indent": 3,
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "Similar to cellulose but Oh group at carbon atom 2 is replaced bitin forms bundles of long parallel chainsy a nitrogen containing group"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "indent": 3,
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "Condensation and hydrolysis"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "indent": 1,
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "Condensation"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "indent": 2,
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "Monosaccharides are joined together to form disaccharides and polysaccharides"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "indent": 3,
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "Water is released in the process"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "indent": 3,
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "Energy is supplied by nucleotide sugar such as ADP"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "indent": 3,
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "Hydrolysis"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "indent": 2,
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "Compound sugars can be broken down with water"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "indent": 3,
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "Can change PH of solution"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "indent": 3,
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "Lipids"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "indent": 1,
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "Group of organic compunds. (Oily, greasy, waxy)"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "indent": 2,
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "Much smaller proportion of oxygen than carbohdrates"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "indent": 2,
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "Relatively insoluble inw ater, tend of be hydrophobic"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "indent": 2,
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "Lipdids are soluble in organic solvents such as ethanol"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "indent": 2,
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "Many functions (fuels, hormones, structural components of membranes)"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "indent": 2,
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "Twice as much energy as carbohydrates"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "indent": 2,
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "Not macromolecules, byh because of hydrophobic properties, aggrgate into globules"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "indent": 2,
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "Lipid uses"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "indent": 1,
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "Concentrated sources of energy"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "indent": 2,
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "Provide waterproofing in plants and animals"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "indent": 2,
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "Form structural membranes"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "indent": 2,
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "Absorbs shocks (organs are prone to bumps and shocks). Suchioned with fat"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "indent": 2,
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "Source of metabolic water"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "indent": 2,
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "Provide insulation in extreme environments"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "indent": 2,
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "Fats and oils"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "indent": 1,
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "Most neutral fats"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "indent": 2,
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "Monogly …. (need more notes)"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "indent": 2,
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "Fats/oils"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "indent": 1,
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "Difference is physical state at 20 degrees"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "indent": 2,
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "Fats solid"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "indent": 2,
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "Oils liquid"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "indent": 2,
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "Saturated versus unsaturated (number of hydrogens) saturated = maximum hydrogens"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "indent": 2,
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "Saturated forms straight chains. All single bonds."
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "indent": 2,
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "Unsaturated contain some carbon atoms that are double bonded with each other"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "indent": 2,
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "Kinks in molecule cause them to be liquid"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "indent": 2,
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "Phospholipid"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "indent": 1,
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "bold": true
                  },
                  "insert": "A glycerol molecule, two fatty acid chains, and a phosphate group"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "indent": 2,
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "Steroids"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "indent": 1,
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "Classified as liquid, but act differently from other lipiids"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "indent": 2,
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "Basic structure is"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "indent": 2,
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "Three six carbon atom rings"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "indent": 3,
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "One five carbon atom ring"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "indent": 3,
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "Include sex hormones and other hormones"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "indent": 2,
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "Cholesterol is sterol lipid"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "indent": 2,
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "Nucleic acids"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "indent": 1,
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "Biochemical macromolecules involved with the transmission of inherited information"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "indent": 2,
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "Two types of nucleic acids involved with inheritance"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "indent": 2,
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "indent": 3,
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "Ribonucleic acid (RNA)"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "indent": 3,
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "Nucleotide"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "indent": 2,
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "Basic unit of nucleic acid"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "indent": 3,
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "Phosphate group"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "indent": 4,
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "Sugar"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "indent": 4,
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "Base"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "indent": 4,
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "Five nucleotide bases found in nucleic acids (ACGT & U)"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "indent": 3,
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "In chromosomes, mitochondria, chloroplasts"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "indent": 2,
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "RNA consists of single strand"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "indent": 2,
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "Transfer RNA"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "indent": 3,
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "Messenger RNA"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "indent": 3,
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "Ribosomal RNA"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "indent": 3
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                }
              ]
            }
          }
        ],
        "id": "mDhjG2GG"
      },
      {
        "title": "SACs",
        "tags": [],
        "pages": [],
        "id": "3wHHTtfk"
      },
      {
        "title": "Cell permeability (66%)",
        "tags": [],
        "pages": [],
        "id": "WbYPZ3Tundefined"
      },
      {
        "title": "SAC 2 - 90%",
        "tags": [],
        "pages": [
          {
            "type": "text",
            "qtext": {
              "ops": [
                {
                  "insert": "\n"
                }
              ]
            }
          }
        ],
        "id": "e4ZafQ5k"
      },
      {
        "title": "Photosynthesis versus cellular respiration",
        "tags": [],
        "pages": [
          {
            "type": "text",
            "qtext": {
              "ops": [
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "height": "627",
                    "width": "868"
                  },
                  "insert": {
                    "image": "/qimg/Photosynthesis versus cellular respiration 0.jpg"
                  }
                },
                {
                  "insert": "\n"
                }
              ]
            }
          }
        ],
        "id": "OtfB9aab4H"
      },
      {
        "title": "Summary brainstorm",
        "tags": [],
        "pages": [
          {
            "type": "text",
            "qtext": {
              "ops": [
                {
                  "insert": {
                    "image": "/qimg/Summary brainstorm 0.jpg"
                  }
                },
                {
                  "insert": "\n"
                }
              ]
            }
          }
        ],
        "id": "5Kq03myhyD"
      },
      {
        "title": "Anaerobic respiration",
        "tags": [],
        "pages": [
          {
            "type": "text",
            "qtext": {
              "ops": [
                {
                  "insert": {
                    "image": "/qimg/Anaerobic respiration 0.jpg"
                  }
                },
                {
                  "insert": "\n"
                }
              ]
            }
          }
        ],
        "id": "Nm38gM7OhF"
      },
      {
        "title": "Things to remember",
        "tags": [],
        "pages": [
          {
            "type": "text",
            "qtext": {
              "ops": [
                {
                  "insert": {
                    "image": "/qimg/Things to remember 0.jpg"
                  }
                },
                {
                  "insert": "\n"
                }
              ]
            }
          }
        ],
        "id": "GZgfpgP0d0"
      },
      {
        "title": "Study Design",
        "tags": [],
        "pages": [
          {
            "type": "text",
            "qtext": {
              "ops": [
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "link": "http://www.vcaa.vic.edu.au/Documents/vce/biology/BiologySD-2016.pdf"
                  },
                  "insert": "PDF"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "\n\nKey: "
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "background": "#a7f69c"
                  },
                  "insert": "Confident."
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "background": "#f7ec5f"
                  },
                  "insert": "Mostly confident, some clarification required. "
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "background": "#f1989f"
                  },
                  "insert": "Often make errors/haven't yet learnt. "
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "background": "#60f2ed"
                  },
                  "insert": "TODO"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "\nUnit 1 Area of study 1"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "header": 1
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "bold": true
                  },
                  "insert": "Plasma membranes"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "header": 2
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "the fluid mosaic model of the structure of the plasma membrane and the movement of hydrophilic and hydrophobic substances across it based on their size and polarity"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "background": "#a7f69c"
                  },
                  "insert": "Know terminology, especially 'fluid mosaic model'"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "indent": 1,
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "background": "#f7ec5f"
                  },
                  "insert": "Need to ensure I understand what can cross the membrane "
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "background": "#f7ec5f",
                    "bold": true
                  },
                  "insert": "and why"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "indent": 1,
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "the role of different organelles including ribosomes, endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus and associated vesicles in the export of a protein product from the cell through exocytosis"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "background": "#f1989f"
                  },
                  "insert": "Sometimes confuse golgi apparatus and ER when looking at SEM images"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "indent": 1,
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "cellular engulfment of material by endocytosis."
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "background": "#a7f69c"
                  },
                  "insert": "Know terminology"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "indent": 1,
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "background": "#f7ec5f"
                  },
                  "insert": "Mostly confident with process"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "indent": 1,
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "bold": true
                  },
                  "insert": "Nucleic acids and proteins"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "header": 2
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "nucleic acids as information molecules that encode instructions for the synthesis of proteins in cells"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "background": "#a7f69c"
                  },
                  "insert": "Confident with this concept"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "indent": 1,
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "Protein functional diversity and the nature of the proteome"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "background": "#f7ec5f"
                  },
                  "insert": "Understand most of the terminology, though should revise."
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "indent": 1,
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "the functional importance of the four hierarchal levels of protein structure"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "background": "#a7f69c"
                  },
                  "insert": "Strongly understand this concept"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "indent": 1,
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "background": "#f7ec5f"
                  },
                  "insert": "Should ensure that I answer related questions with the proper wording (Eg. regarding quaternary structure)."
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "indent": 1,
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "the synthesis of a polypeptide chain from amino acid monomers by condensation polymerisation"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "background": "#f7ec5f"
                  },
                  "insert": "Can remember terminology, though need to ensure I am clear in my responses."
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "indent": 1,
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "background": "#a7f69c"
                  },
                  "insert": "Confident about process"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "indent": 1,
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "the structure of DNA and the three forms of RNA including similarities and differences in their subunits, and their synthesis by condensation polymerisation"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "background": "#a7f69c"
                  },
                  "insert": "Confident of role of tRNA, mRNA and rRNA"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "indent": 1,
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "background": "#f7ec5f"
                  },
                  "insert": "Should revise specific structural components and subunits of these molecules"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "indent": 1,
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "the genetic code as a degenerate triplet code and the steps in gene expression including transcription, RNA processing in eukaryotic cells and translation."
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "background": "#a7f69c"
                  },
                  "insert": "Confident"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "indent": 1,
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "bold": true
                  },
                  "insert": "Gene structure and regulation"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "header": 2
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "the functional distinction between structural genes and regulatory genes"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "background": "#a7f69c"
                  },
                  "insert": "Confident"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "indent": 1,
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "the structure of genes in eukaryotic cells including stop and start instructions, promoter regions, exons and introns"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "background": "#60f2ed"
                  },
                  "insert": "TODO: Add these to glossary with labelled diagram (Basic it off my labelled studysheet diagram)"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "indent": 1,
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "use of the lac operon as a simple prokaryotic model that illustrates the switching off and on of genes by proteins (transcriptional factors) expressed by regulatory genes."
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "background": "#a7f69c"
                  },
                  "insert": "Confident"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "indent": 1,
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "bold": true
                  },
                  "insert": "Structure and regulation of biochemical pathways"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "header": 2
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "the role of enzymes as protein catalysts in biochemical pathways"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "background": "#a7f69c"
                  },
                  "insert": "Confident, though should ensure I consistently use vocab"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "indent": 1,
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "the mode of action of enzymes including reversible and irreversible inhibition of their action due to chemical competitors at the active site, and by factors including temperature, concentration and pH"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "background": "#f7ec5f"
                  },
                  "insert": "Should review factors"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "background": "#f1989f"
                  },
                  "insert": " and reversible/irreversible."
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "indent": 1,
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "background": "#a7f69c"
                  },
                  "insert": "Confident that I understand how competitors work and the difference between competitive and non competitive"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "indent": 1,
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "the cycling of coenzymes (ATP, NADH, and NADPH) as loaded and unloaded forms to move energy, protons and electrons between reactions in the cell."
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "background": "#a7f69c"
                  },
                  "insert": "Confident "
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "background": "#f7ec5f"
                  },
                  "insert": "however I need to clarify whether/if they clarify protons or electrons. At the moment, just think 'energy'"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "indent": 1,
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "bold": true
                  },
                  "insert": "Photosynthesis"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "header": 2
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "the purpose of photosynthesis"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "background": "#a7f69c"
                  },
                  "insert": "Confident"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "indent": 1,
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "chloroplasts as the site of photosynthesis, an overview of their structure and evidence of their bacterial origins"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "background": "#a7f69c"
                  },
                  "insert": "Confident"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "background": "#f7ec5f"
                  },
                  "insert": ", though should review specifics of bacterial origins"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "indent": 1,
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "inputs and outputs of the light dependent and light independent (Calvin cycle) stages of photosynthesis in C3 plants (details of the biochemical pathway mechanisms are not required)"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "background": "#f7ec5f"
                  },
                  "insert": "Mostly confident, but should continually recall over the course of the year to keep fresh"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "indent": 1,
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "factors that affect the rate of photosynthesis, including light, temperature and carbon dioxide concentration."
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "background": "#a7f69c"
                  },
                  "insert": "Confident"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "indent": 1,
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "bold": true
                  },
                  "insert": "Cellular respiration"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "header": 2
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "the purpose of cellular respiration"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "background": "#a7f69c"
                  },
                  "insert": "Confident. In fact, should really just memorise so I nail the wording"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "indent": 1,
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "the location of, and the inputs and outputs of, glycolysis including ATP yield (details of the biochemical pathway mechanisms are not required)"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "background": "#a7f69c"
                  },
                  "insert": "Confident"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "indent": 1,
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "mitochondria as the site of aerobic cellular respiration, an overview of their structure and evidence of their bacterial origins"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "background": "#a7f69c"
                  },
                  "insert": "Confident"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "background": "#f7ec5f"
                  },
                  "insert": ", though should review specifics of bacterial origins"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "indent": 1,
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "the main inputs and outputs of the Krebs (citric acid) cycle and electron transport chain including ATP yield (details of the biochemical pathway mechanisms are not required)"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "background": "#f7ec5f"
                  },
                  "insert": "Should review over the course of the year, though mostly confident. Remember, visually, where these inputs and outputs travel and what their job is."
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "indent": 1,
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "the location of anaerobic cellular respiration, its inputs and the difference in outputs between animals and yeasts including ATP yield"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "background": "#a7f69c"
                  },
                  "insert": "Confident"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "indent": 1,
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "factors that affect the rate of cellular respiration, including temperature, glucose availability and oxygen concentration"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "background": "#f7ec5f"
                  },
                  "insert": "Review factors a little more, for everything really. Not too difficult, but easy to make silly mistakes with."
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "indent": 1,
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "\nUnit 1 Area of study 2"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "header": 1
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "bold": true
                  },
                  "insert": "Cellular signals"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "header": 2
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "the sources and mode of transmission of various signalling molecules to their target cell, including "
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "background": "#f1989f"
                  },
                  "insert": "plant"
                },
                {
                  "insert": " and "
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "background": "#f7ec5f"
                  },
                  "insert": "animal hormones"
                },
                {
                  "insert": ", neurotransmitters, cytokines and pheromones"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "the "
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "background": "#a7f69c"
                  },
                  "insert": "stimulus-response model"
                },
                {
                  "insert": " when applied to the cell in terms of signal transduction as a three-step process involving"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "background": "#a7f69c"
                  },
                  "insert": " reception, transduction and cellular response"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "difference in signal transduction for "
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "background": "#a7f69c"
                  },
                  "insert": "hydrophilic and hydrophobic signals in terms of the position of receptors"
                },
                {
                  "insert": " (on the membrane and in the cytosol) and initiation of transduction (details of specific chemicals, names of second messengers, G protein pathways, reaction mechanisms or cascade reactions are not required)"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "background": "#f7ec5f"
                  },
                  "insert": "apoptosis"
                },
                {
                  "insert": " as a natural, regulatory process of programmed cell death, initiated after a cell receives a signal from inside (mitochondrial pathway) or from outside (death receptor pathway) the cell resulting in the removal of cells that are no longer needed or that may be a threat to an organism, mediated by enzymes (caspases) that cleave specific proteins in the cytoplasm or nucleus (details of specific cytoplasmic or nuclear proteins are not required)"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "malfunctions in apoptosis that result in deviant cell behaviour leading to diseases including cancer."
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "Responding to antigens"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "header": 2
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "an antigen as a unique molecule or part of a molecule that initiates an immune response including the distinction between non-self antigens, self-antigens and allergens"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "invading cellular and non-cellular pathogens as a source of non-self antigens, and preventative strategies including physical, chemical and microbiological barriers in animals and plants that keep them out"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "the characteristics and roles of components (macrophages, neutrophils, mast cells, dendritic cells, complement proteins) of the innate (non-specific) immune response to an antigen including the steps in the inflammatory response"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "the role of the lymphatic system in the immune response including the role of secondary lymphoid tissue (with reference to lymph nodes) as the site of antigen recognition by lymphocytes, and as a transport system for antigen presenting cells including dendritic cells"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "The characteristics and roles of components of the adaptive (specific) immune response including the actions of B lymphocytes and their antibodies (including antibody structure) in humoral immunity, and the actions of T helper and T cytotoxic cells in cell-mediated immuity. Immunity • the difference between natural and artificial immunity, and active and passive strategies for acquiring immunity "
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "vaccination programs and their role in maintaining herd immunity for a particular disease in the human population "
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "the deficiencies and malfunctions of the immune system as a cause of human diseases including autoimmune diseases (illustrated by multiple sclerosis), immune deficiency diseases (illustrated by HIV) and allergic reactions (illustrated by reactions to pollen)"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "the use of monoclonal antibodies in treating cancer."
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "\nUnit 2 Area of study 1"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "header": 1
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "bold": true
                  },
                  "insert": "Changes in the genetic makeup of a population"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "header": 2
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "the qualitative treatment of the causes of changing allele frequencies in a population’s gene pool including types of mutations (point, frameshift, block) as a source of new alleles, chromosomal abnormalities (aneuploidy and polyploidy), environmental selection pressures on phenotypes as the mechanism for natural selection, gene flow, and genetic drift (bottleneck and founder effects) and the biological consequences of such changes in terms of increased or reduced genetic diversity"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "processes of evolution including through the action of mutations and different selection pressures on a fragmented population and subsequent isolating mechanisms (allopatric speciation) that prevent gene flow"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "the manipulation of gene pools through selective breeding programs."
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "bold": true
                  },
                  "insert": "Changes in biodiversity over time"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "header": 2
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "significant changes in life forms in Earth’s geological history including the rise of multicellular organisms, animals on land, the first flowering plants and mammals"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "evidence of biological change over time including from palaeontology (the fossil record, the relative and absolute dating of fossils, types of fossils and the steps in fossilisation), biogeography, developmental biology and structural morphology"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "patterns of biological change over geological time including divergent evolution, convergent evolution and mass extinctions."
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "bold": true
                  },
                  "insert": "Determining relatedness between species"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "header": 2
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "molecular homology as evidence of relatedness between species including DNA and amino acid sequences, mtDNA (the molecular clock) and the DNA hybridisation technique"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "the use of phylogenetic trees to show relatedness between species"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "the evolution of novel phenotypes arising from chance events within genomes, specifically sets of genes that regulate developmental processes and lead to changes in the expression of a few master genes found across the animal phyla, as demonstrated by the expression of gene BMP4 in beak formation of the Galapagos finches and jaw formation of cichlid fish in Africa."
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "bold": true
                  },
                  "insert": "Human change over time"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "header": 2
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "shared characteristics that define primates, hominoids and hominins"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "major trends in hominin evolution from the genus Australopithecus to the genus Homo including structural, functional and cognitive changes and the consequences for cultural evolution"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "the human fossil record as an example of a classification scheme that is open to interpretations that are contested, refined or replaced when new evidence challenges them or when a new model has greater explanatory power, including whether Homo sapiens and Homo neanderthalensis interbred and the placement of the Denisovans into the Homo evolutionary tree."
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "\nUnit 2 Area of study 2"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "header": 1
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "DNA manipulation"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "header": 2
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "the use of enzymes including endonucleases (restriction enzymes), ligases and polymerases"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "amplification of DNA using the polymerase chain reaction"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "the use of gel electrophoresis in sorting DNA fragments, including interpretation of gel runs"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "the use of recombinant plasmids as vectors to transform bacterial cells."
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "Biological knowledge and society"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "header": 2
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "techniques that apply DNA knowledge (specifically gene cloning, genetic screening and DNA profiling) including social and ethical implications and issues"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "the distinction between genetically modified and transgenic organisms, their use in agriculture to increase crop productivity and to provide resistance to insect predation and/or disease, and the biological, social and ethical implications that are raised by their use"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "strategies that deal with the emergence of new diseases in a globally connected world, including the distinction between epidemics and pandemics, the use of scientific knowledge to identify the pathogen, and the types of treatments"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "the concept of rational drug design in terms of the complementary nature (shape and charge) of small molecules that are designed to bind tightly to target biomolecules (limited to enzymes) resulting in the enzyme’s inhibition and giving rise to a consequential therapeutic benefit, illustrated by the Australian development of the antiviral drug Relenza as a neuraminidase inhibitor"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "the use of chemical agents against pathogens including the distinction between antibiotics and antiviral drugs with reference to their mode of action and biological effectiveness."
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "\nUnit 2 Area of study 3"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "header": 1
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "independent, dependent and controlled variables"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "header": 2
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "the biological concepts specific to the investigation and their significance, including definitions of key terms, and biological representations"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "the characteristics of scientific research methodologies and techniques of primary qualitative and quantitative data collection relevant to the selected investigation, including laboratory work (biochemistry, cytology, immunology) and/or fieldwork (geomorphology); precision, accuracy, reliability and validity of data; and minimisation of experimental bias"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "ethics and issues of research including identification and application of relevant health, safety and bioethical guidelines"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "methods of organising, analysing and evaluating primary data to identify patterns and relationships including sources of error and limitations of data and methodologies"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "models, theories and classification keys, and their use in organising and explaining observed phenomena and biological concepts including their limitations"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "the nature of evidence that supports or refutes a hypothesis, model or theory"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "the key findings of the selected investigation and their relationship to cytological, biochemical and/or evolutionary concepts"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "the conventions of scientific report writing and scientific poster presentation including biological terminology and representations, standard abbreviations, units of measurement and acknowledgment of references"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                }
              ]
            }
          }
        ],
        "id": "mJjMtW4ba1"
      },
      {
        "title": "Chapter Six - Cellular Signals",
        "tags": [],
        "pages": [],
        "id": "JNLB14bly0",
        "saveStatus": "Saved."
      },
      {
        "title": "6.1 Signalling Molecules",
        "tags": [],
        "pages": [
          {
            "type": "text",
            "qtext": {
              "ops": [
                {
                  "insert": "Types of molecules include"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "Plant and animal signalling molecules"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "indent": 1,
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "Hormones"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "indent": 1,
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "Cytokines"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "indent": 1,
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "Pheromones"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "indent": 1,
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "Neurotransmitters"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "indent": 1,
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "Cellular Communication"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "Multicellular organisms have developed mechanisms to comunicate between cells and convey messages about changes to internal and external environment conditions"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "indent": 1,
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "Effector cells respond to signalling molecules."
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "Mode of transmission of signalling molecules"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "Autocrine: A cell targets itself. Eg - Activated T Lymphocytes produce a cytokine for which they also have receptors for."
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "indent": 1,
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "Paracrine: A cell targets a nearby cell. Eg - Neurotransmitters are secreted by a neuron and target the next neuron in the neural pathway."
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "indent": 1,
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "Endocrine: A cell targets a distant cell through the bloodstream. Eg - Animal hormones are released from glands and organs and through throughout the body, usually in the bloodstream, to act on distant target cells."
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "indent": 1,
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "Nature and source of signalling molecules"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "Classified according to chemical properties as hydrophobic or hydrophillic."
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "indent": 1,
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "Hormones"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "Signalling molecule produced in tiny amounts that can have relatively long last effects on targets cells. Regulate the growth and activity of cells in most animals and plants."
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "indent": 1,
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "In vertebrates, the endocrine is response for coordinating many body functions, including growth, metabolism and reproduction."
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "indent": 1,
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "Hormones can be grouped into three main classes:"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "indent": 1,
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "Lipid hormones are hydrophobic, ad derived from fatty acids or cholesterol. Include steroid hormones which regulate metabolism, salt and water balance, etc. Examples of steroid hormones include the sex hormones."
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "indent": 2,
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "Peptide and protein hormones: Class of hydrophillic signalling molecules. Example is insulin, and an example of a protein hormone is a growth horomne."
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "indent": 2,
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "Amino-acid-derived hormones are a class of small signalling molecules derived from amino acids tyrosine and tryptophan. Some hydrophobic (thyroid hormones), some hydrophillic (catecholammines)"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "indent": 2,
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "Plant hormones"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "Abscisic acid"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "indent": 1,
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "Visible effect: Seed and bud dormancy, drought tolerance and apical dominance."
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "indent": 2,
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "Auxins"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "indent": 1,
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "Visible effect: Shoot tip bends towards the light (phototropism), roots grow downwards (gravitropism), apical dominance"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "indent": 2,
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "Cytokinins"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "indent": 1,
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "Visible effect: Growth of lateral branches"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "indent": 2,
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "Ethene"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "indent": 1,
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "Visible effect: Increases sugar content of fruit, fruit and leaf drop"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "indent": 2,
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "Giberellins"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "indent": 1,
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "Visible effect: Elongation of stems, leaf expansion, seed fermination, fruit and flower maturation."
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "indent": 2,
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "Neurotransmitters"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
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                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "Group of hydrophillic signalling molecules secret by neurons. "
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "indent": 1,
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "Three types of neurons:"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
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                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "Efferent (motor) neurons"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "indent": 2,
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "Interneurons"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "indent": 2,
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "Afferent (sensory) neurons"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "indent": 2,
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "Structure of a neuron:"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "indent": 1,
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "One or more dendrites"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "indent": 2,
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "A cell body"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "indent": 2,
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "An axon"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "indent": 2,
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "Neurotransmitters are produced in the synaptic terminals of the neuron."
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "indent": 1,
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "alt": "https://usercontent2.hubstatic.com/7624067_f496.jpg",
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                  },
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                    "image": "https://usercontent2.hubstatic.com/7624067_f496.jpg"
                  }
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
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                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "Mode of transmission: Form of paracrine signalling."
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "indent": 1,
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "Neurons secrete neurotransmitters into specialised junctions they form with local target cells, such as other neurons, gland cells or muslce cells. The jungles are called synapses. When an electrical signal arrives, it triggers the release of neurotransmitters into the intersynaptic space. The neurotransmitters diffuse across the intersynaptic space and bind to receptors on the surface of the postsynaptic neuron, which will in turn cause the transmission of the nerveous impulse from one neuron to another."
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "indent": 1,
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "Cytokines"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "Group of hydrophillic signalling molecules involved in communication between immune cells. Cytokines coordinate many aspects of the immune response and are released by body cells in response to damage or pathogens. Sources of cytokines include macrophages, T lymphocytes and B lymphocytes. Some cytokines, such as interferones and interleukins, are primarily involved in regulating inflammation and other immune system responses to infection."
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "indent": 1,
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "Pheromones"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "Signalling molecules that are excreted into the external environment of the organism are called pheromones. Usually influence the behaviour of another individual, usually of the same species."
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "indent": 1,
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "Common functions in animals include triggering alarm and aggressive responses, marking territory, marking food trails and attracting mates."
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "indent": 1,
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                }
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        "title": "6.2 Signal Transduction",
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              "ops": [
                {
                  "insert": "The process of converting an original stimulus signal into a response. Involves changing the form of the signal in some way."
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                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "Two general, characteristic types of signal transduction are hydrophobic and hydrophilic."
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "\nStimulus response model"
                },
                {
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                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "Cells in a multicellular organisms must communicate with each other."
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "indent": 1,
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "Three step: Reception by a receptor, transduction, and cellular response."
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "indent": 1,
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "In transduction, multistep sequential activation of different molecules in a chain of events are called cascades."
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
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                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "The response may occur in the nucleus, cytosol, or plasma membrane."
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
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                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "Signal transduction of "
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "bold": true
                  },
                  "insert": "hydrophobic signalling molecules"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
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                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "Usually lipid based molecules involved in gene regulation."
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "indent": 1,
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "Lipid soluble so they can easily diffuse through the plasma membrane"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "indent": 1,
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "Steroid hormones are examples of lipid based hydrophobic signalling molecules that bind to receptors in the cyytosol. Once bound, the signalling molecule-receptor complex moves from the cytosol through nuclear pores to the final destination in the nucleus."
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
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                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "Steroid hormones includes the sex hormones (testosterone, estrogen, etc), cortisol, aidosterone, vitamin D."
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                  "attributes": {
                    "indent": 1,
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "Once in the nucleus, sig molecule receptor complex acts as "
                },
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                  "insert": "transcription factor"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "."
                },
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                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "Signal transduction of "
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                },
                {
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                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "Include hydrophilic peptides hormones, neurotransmitters, and cytokines."
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                  "attributes": {
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                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "Reception:"
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                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "Water soluble, and so are unable to diffuse through plasma membranes. Therefore, the first step for all hydrophilic signalling molecules is to interact with the receptors on the external surface of the plasma membrane."
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "indent": 2,
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "The receptors for these signalling molecules are transmembrane proteins, which are made up of oe of more protein molecules and span both layers of the plasma membrane. An example of a transmembrane protein is the G=protein coupled receptor, which consists of seven membrane spanning domains. The receptor is activated by the ind of molecules on the surface of the cell to induce cellular responses inside the cell."
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "indent": 2,
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "The receptor may initiate a cellular response directly or indirectly by the activation of other molecules such as second messenges g proteins, or both."
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "indent": 2,
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "Second messengers: Intermediate signalling molecules that relay signals."
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
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                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "Transduction cascades"
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                  "attributes": {
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                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "A signalling molecules an initiate different responses in different cell types"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
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                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "Different receptors for th same sig molecule can exist in different cells, which may activate different transduction cascades."
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
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                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "Proteins can be specific to particular cells and will lead to a particular response only in the cells in which they are present."
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
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                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "A cascade in a transduction pathway allows the "
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                  "insert": "amplification"
                },
                {
                  "insert": " of the original signal."
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
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                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "Responses in the cytosol cause the inhibition or activation of enzymes, which control cellular functions. Insulin is one hormone that acts on enzymes in the cytosol of target cells."
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "indent": 1,
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "Some ion channels can be opened or closed in response to cellular signals."
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                  "attributes": {
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                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "Signal transduction in neurons"
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                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "Upon stimulation, gated sodium and potassium ion channels on the neurons surface are opened. Sudden movement of the ions into and out of neuron initiates the action potential, which travels the length of the axon of the neuron in a wave like sequence, opening other ion channels along the membrane."
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                },
                {
                  "insert": "\n"
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        "title": "6.3 Apoptosis",
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                  "insert": "Programmed cell death. All or nothing process, one triggered, cannot be stopped."
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                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "Apoptosis is a receptor mediated response triggered by signalling molecules inside or outside the cell. Causes include cell aging, cell obsolescence (lack of requirement) and damaged DNA."
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                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "Once signaled, apoptosis occurs as a series of coordinated steps."
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                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "Caspases and the process of apoptosis"
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                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "Enzymes called caspases are responsible for apoptosis. They are produced within the cell and stored as inactive precursors. When a sig. molecule is produced to stimulate apoptosis the sig molecule binds to a receptor and this binding activates the caspase precursor. This then stimulated the activation of other caspases, triggering a cascade that leads to cell death."
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                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "Caspace-3 is a protease that plays a role in apoptosis. It causes theg radmentation of actin gilaments, part of a cell's cytoskeleton, and the inactivation of DNA repair."
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                  "insert": "\n"
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                  "insert": "1. Separation from ajacent cells"
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                  "insert": "\n"
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                {
                  "insert": "2. Collapse of the cell's cytoskeleton"
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                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "3. Cell shrinkage"
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                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "4. Breakdown of organelles and nucleus"
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                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "Blebbing of the plasma membrane"
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                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "Budding of plama membrane bound bescicles called apoptic bodies which prevent toxic or ummunogenic substances from leaking when the apoptic bodies are phagocytosed."
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                  "attributes": {
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                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "Phagocytosis of the apoptic bodies by specialised cells, typically macrophages, without spilling cell contents or triggering an inflammatory response."
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                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "Pathways to apoptosis"
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                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "Two major pathways on the basis of where the signal comes from - inside (intrinsic) or outside (extrinsic)"
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                  "attributes": {
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                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "The intrinsic pathway is also referred to as the mitochondrial pathway"
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                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "The extrinsic pathway is also referred to as the death receptor pathway."
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                  "insert": "\n"
                }
              ]
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        "title": "SAC 3 - Cell death, signalling",
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        "title": "Preparation",
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                  "insert": "Hypothesis"
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                  "insert": "4/5"
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                {
                  "insert": "If a coffee stimulant is ingested the response time (ms) of an individual will decrease to be less than their typical average response time."
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                  "attributes": {
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                  "insert": "Errors, improvements and control."
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                  "insert": "Error: Different individuals will have different tolerances and have varying responses to a coffee stimulant. There was too small a sample size to be certain that the change in response time was caused by the coffee."
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                  "insert": "Error resolution: Use an increased sample size to adjust for individual tolerances and variations in response time test."
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                  "insert": "\n"
                },
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                  "attributes": {
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                  "insert": "Consequence of changing a hypothetical variable."
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                  "insert": "If the "
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                  "insert": "Cell death"
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                  "insert": "Apoptosis"
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                {
                  "insert": "Definition"
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                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "\""
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                  },
                  "insert": "the death of cells which occurs as a normal and controlled part of an organism's growth or development."
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                  "insert": "\""
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                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "Terminology"
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                },
                {
                  "insert": "Caspase: \""
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                  },
                  "insert": "family of protease enzymes playing essential roles in"
                },
                {
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                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "Bleb: "
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
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                  },
                  "insert": "a bulge or protrusion of th"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "e plasma membrane of a cell, human bioparticulate or abscess with an internal environment similar to that of a simple cell, characterized by a spherical, bulky morphology"
                },
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                  "insert": "Apoptotic bodies: A vesicle containing parts (organelles) of a dying cell."
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                },
                {
                  "insert": "Fragmentation: Apoptotic DNA fragmentation is a key component of apoptosis in which DNA strands are fragmented into pieces."
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                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
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                  "insert": "Cytochrome C: "
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                },
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                  },
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                {
                  "insert": "1. Cell damage or death signal begins apoptosis."
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                {
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                {
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                },
                {
                  "insert": "4. Cells breaks into apoptotic bodies."
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "indent": 2,
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "5. Apoptotic bodies engulfed by macrophages through phagocytosis."
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                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "indent": 2,
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "Consequences on surrounding cell tissue"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "indent": 1,
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "As the cell undergoing apoptosis is packaged into tidy apoptotic body's, they cannot harm nearby cells and are destroyed by macrophages. Thus, there are few consequences on surrounding cell tissue."
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                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "indent": 2,
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "Pathways"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "indent": 1,
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "Intrinsic (mitochondrial) pathway"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "indent": 2,
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "Signalling: Internal. Cytochrome C is released from the mitochondria, which creates a cascade of caspases leading to apoptosis."
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "indent": 3,
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "Transduction:"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "indent": 3,
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "Extrinsic (death receptor) pathway"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "indent": 2,
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "Signalling: External. A death receptor is triggered, which creates a cascade of caspases leading to apoptosis."
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "indent": 3,
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "Transduction:"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "indent": 3,
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "Too much / too little"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "indent": 1,
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "Too little:"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "indent": 2,
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "Cancers (cells that should be removed are not, and thus a tumour of cells forms)"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "indent": 3,
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "Too much:"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "indent": 2,
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "background": "#ffffff",
                    "color": "#222222"
                  },
                  "insert": "Neurodegenerative "
                },
                {
                  "insert": "conditions such as Alzheimer's where neurons die when they shouldn't."
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "indent": 3,
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "bold": true
                  },
                  "insert": "Necrosis"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "background": "#fefffa",
                    "bold": true
                  },
                  "insert": " "
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "background": "#f7ec5f"
                  },
                  "insert": "3/5"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "Definition: \""
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "background": "#ffffff",
                    "color": "#222222"
                  },
                  "insert": "the death of most or all of the cells in an organ or tissue due to disease, injury, or failure of the blood supply."
                },
                {
                  "insert": "\""
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "indent": 1,
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "Terminology"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "indent": 1,
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "Process"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "indent": 1,
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "1. Cell and organelles swell"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "indent": 2,
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "2. Plasma membranes "
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "bold": true
                  },
                  "insert": "ruptures "
                },
                {
                  "insert": "cellular and nuclear lysis cause inflammation"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "indent": 2,
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "Consequences on cell tissue"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "indent": 1,
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "bold": true
                  },
                  "insert": "Consequence of apoptosis/necrosis"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "background": "#fefffa"
                  },
                  "insert": " "
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "background": "#f7ec5f"
                  },
                  "insert": "3/5"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "In apoptosis"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "indent": 1,
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "Cells are removed in a manner that does not impact surrounding tissue. Can save surrounding cells from pathogens or viral attack as the threat may be removed."
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "indent": 2,
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "In necrosis"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "indent": 1,
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "Swelling of nearby tissue due to immune response."
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "indent": 2,
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "bold": true
                  },
                  "insert": "Apoptosis versus necrosis"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "background": "#a7f69c"
                  },
                  "insert": "Cell signalling"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "header": 2
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "bold": true
                  },
                  "insert": "Definitions"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "background": "#fefffa",
                    "bold": true
                  },
                  "insert": " "
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "background": "#f7ec5f"
                  },
                  "insert": "3/5"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "Ligand: \""
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "background": "#ffffff",
                    "color": "#222222"
                  },
                  "insert": "a molecule that binds to another (usually larger) molecule"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "\". All signalling molecules are ligands."
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "indent": 1,
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "G protein: Made of three subunits. Involved in transmitting stimuli from outside a cell to it's interior. Thus, they are "
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "bold": true
                  },
                  "insert": "primary messengers"
                },
                {
                  "insert": " (they can trigger secondary messengers)"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "indent": 1,
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "Second messenger:"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "indent": 1,
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "GPCR: \"G-Protein coupled receptor\": A transmembrane protein usually bound to a G-Protein"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "indent": 1,
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "Conformational change: A change in shape of a macromolecule."
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "indent": 1,
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "bold": true
                  },
                  "insert": "Types of signalling molecules"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "Hormones:"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "indent": 1,
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "Animal:"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "indent": 2,
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "Plant: "
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "background": "#f7ec5f",
                    "bold": true
                  },
                  "insert": "2/5"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "indent": 2,
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "background": "#d1adff"
                  },
                  "insert": "Gibberellins"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "indent": 3,
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "background": "#faf8f5",
                    "color": "#222222"
                  },
                  "insert": "most important in stems, fruits and seeds"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "indent": 4,
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "Auxin"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "indent": 3,
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "Cytokinins"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "indent": 3,
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "Abscisic Acid"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "indent": 3,
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "Ethylene"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "indent": 3,
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "Neurotransmitters:"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "indent": 1,
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "Neural transduction pathway:"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "indent": 2,
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "Electrical impulse travels down neuron until it reaches the end, where it releases vacuoles containing neurotransmitters into the synaptic gap which diffuse to the post synaptic specific receptors, which receive the neurotransmitters and stimulate an electrical potential to travel down the next neuron, continuing the signal, OR, if the post synaptic receptors are not on a neuron cell, they could make a cell release glands, tense a muscle, etc etc."
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "indent": 3,
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "Cytokinins:"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "indent": 1,
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "Pheromones:"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "indent": 1,
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "bold": true
                  },
                  "insert": "Key notes / things to remember"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "background": "#d1adff"
                  },
                  "insert": "Remember to refer to all signal receptors as \"complementary receptors\" as receptors are specific."
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "indent": 1,
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "bold": true
                  },
                  "insert": "Pathways"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "Proteins / hydrophilic / water soluble / lipid insoluble"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "indent": 1,
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "Example signalling molecules:"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "indent": 2,
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "Peptides like insulin"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "indent": 3,
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "Lipid / hydrophobic / water insoluble / lipid soluble "
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "indent": 1,
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "Example signalling molecules"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "indent": 2,
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "Sex hormones such as testosterone"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "indent": 3,
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "Process:"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "indent": 2,
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "bold": true
                  },
                  "insert": "Diffuse"
                },
                {
                  "insert": " through phospholipid bilayer."
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "indent": 3,
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "Bind to receptor in cytoplasm or on nucleus"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "indent": 3,
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "Complex enters nucleus and acts as transcription factor"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "indent": 3,
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "bold": true
                  },
                  "insert": "Protein versus lipids"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "background": "#fefffa"
                  },
                  "insert": " "
                },
                {
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                    "background": "#f7ec5f"
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                  "insert": "4/5"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "list": "bullet"
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                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "bold": true
                  },
                  "insert": "Comparative questions"
                },
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                  "insert": " "
                },
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                    "background": "#f7ec5f"
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                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "list": "bullet"
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                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "bold": true
                  },
                  "insert": "Consequences of responses"
                },
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                  "attributes": {
                    "background": "#fefffa"
                  },
                  "insert": " "
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "background": "#f7ec5f"
                  },
                  "insert": "4/5"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "list": "bullet"
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                  "insert": "\n"
                }
              ]
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      {
        "title": "Questions",
        "tags": [],
        "pages": [
          {
            "type": "text",
            "qtext": {
              "ops": [
                {
                  "insert": "Signal transduction seems to be only extracellular to intracellular signalling, though what about 'signal transduction' between receptor and effector?"
                },
                {
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                  },
                  "insert": "\n\n"
                }
              ]
            }
          }
        ],
        "id": "BQ7qmlmruQ",
        "saveStatus": "Saved."
      },
      {
        "title": "AOS 3 Part 2 (Immunity)",
        "tags": [],
        "pages": [],
        "id": "ywm18HX02T",
        "saveStatus": "Saved."
      },
      {
        "title": "Resources",
        "tags": [],
        "pages": [
          {
            "type": "text",
            "qtext": {
              "ops": [
                {
                  "insert": "https://cnx.org/contents/jVCgr5SL@8.17:ua9HMZgF@3/Innate-Immune-Response\nhttps://cnx.org/contents/GFy_h8cu@10.61:XaEKhjEp@5/Innate-Immune-Response\nhttps://opentextbc.ca/biology/chapter/12-2-innate-immunity/\nhttps://opentextbc.ca/biology/chapter/12-3-adaptive-immunity/\nhttps://opentextbc.ca/biology/chapter/18-1-types-of-hormones/\nhttps://opentextbc.ca/biology/chapter/12-1-viruses/\n\nIn class immunity video: "
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "link": "https://clickv.ie/w/dJWi"
                  },
                  "insert": "https://clickv.ie/w/dJWi"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "\nGreat series covering all of immunity from innate to adaptive, cell mediated and humoral, and multiple sclerosis: "
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "link": "https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rd2cf5hValM"
                  },
                  "insert": "Crash course"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "\n"
                }
              ]
            }
          }
        ],
        "id": "GFKyXbl1Qh",
        "saveStatus": "Saved."
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      {
        "title": "Study Design",
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        "pages": [
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            "type": "text",
            "qtext": {
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                  "attributes": {
                    "link": "http://www.vcaa.vic.edu.au/Documents/vce/biology/BiologySD-2016.pdf"
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                  "insert": "PDF"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "\n\n"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "bold": true
                  },
                  "insert": "Key things to learn"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "\nVocabulary"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "Antigens, allergens, lymph, etc."
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "indent": 1,
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "Types and lines of defences"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "Chemical"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "indent": 1,
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "Physical"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "indent": 1,
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "Microbiological"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "indent": 1,
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "Components and processes of the innate immune response."
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "Components and processes of the specific immune response."
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "Problems with the immune system."
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "bold": true
                  },
                  "insert": "Key: "
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
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                    "bold": true
                  },
                  "insert": " Key concept "
                },
                {
                  "insert": "  "
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "background": "#a7f69c",
                    "bold": true
                  },
                  "insert": " Vocabulary "
                },
                {
                  "insert": "\nResponding to antigens"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "header": 2
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "an "
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "background": "#f7ec5f"
                  },
                  "insert": "antigen"
                },
                {
                  "insert": " as a unique molecule or part of a molecule that initiates an immune response including the distinction between "
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "background": "#a7f69c"
                  },
                  "insert": "non-self antigens, self-antigens and allergens"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "invading cellular and non-cellular pathogens as a source of non-self antigens, and "
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "background": "#f7ec5f"
                  },
                  "insert": "preventative strategies including physical, chemical and microbiological barriers"
                },
                {
                  "insert": " in "
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "background": "#f7ec5f"
                  },
                  "insert": "animals"
                },
                {
                  "insert": " and "
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "background": "#f7ec5f"
                  },
                  "insert": "plants"
                },
                {
                  "insert": " that keep them out"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "the characteristics and roles of components ("
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "background": "#a7f69c"
                  },
                  "insert": "macrophages, neutrophils, mast cells, dendritic cells, complement proteins"
                },
                {
                  "insert": ") of the "
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "background": "#f7ec5f"
                  },
                  "insert": "innate"
                },
                {
                  "insert": " (non-specific) immune response to an antigen including the steps in the inflammatory response"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "the role of the "
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "background": "#f7ec5f"
                  },
                  "insert": "lymphatic system"
                },
                {
                  "insert": " in the immune response including the role of "
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
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                  },
                  "insert": "secondary"
                },
                {
                  "insert": " "
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
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                  },
                  "insert": "lymphoid"
                },
                {
                  "insert": " tissue (with reference to "
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
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                  },
                  "insert": "lymph nodes"
                },
                {
                  "insert": ") as the site of antigen recognition by "
                },
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                  "attributes": {
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                  "insert": "lymphocytes"
                },
                {
                  "insert": ", and as a transport system for antigen presenting cells including "
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                  "attributes": {
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                  "insert": "dendritic"
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                {
                  "insert": " cells"
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                {
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                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "The characteristics and roles of components of the "
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                  "insert": "adaptive"
                },
                {
                  "insert": " (specific) immune response including the actions of "
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                {
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                  "insert": "B lymphocytes"
                },
                {
                  "insert": " and their antibodies (including antibody structure) in "
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
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                  },
                  "insert": "humoral immunity"
                },
                {
                  "insert": ", and the actions of T helper and T cytotoxic cells in cell-mediated immunity."
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                {
                  "attributes": {
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                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "Immunity "
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
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                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "the difference between"
                },
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                  },
                  "insert": " natural and artificial immunity"
                },
                {
                  "insert": ", and "
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
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                  "insert": "active and passive"
                },
                {
                  "insert": " strategies for acquiring immunity "
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
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                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "vaccination programs and their role in maintaining herd immunity for a particular disease in the human population "
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "the deficiencies and malfunctions of the immune system as a cause of human diseases including "
                },
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                  },
                  "insert": "autoimmune"
                },
                {
                  "insert": " diseases (illustrated by multiple sclerosis), immune deficiency diseases (illustrated by HIV) and allergic reactions (illustrated by reactions to pollen)"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
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                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "the use of "
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
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                  },
                  "insert": "monoclonal"
                },
                {
                  "insert": " antibodies in treating cancer."
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                {
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                  "insert": "\n"
                }
              ]
            }
          }
        ],
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      {
        "title": "Errors",
        "tags": [],
        "pages": [
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                  "insert": "\n"
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        "pages": [],
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        "title": "Lymphocytes",
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        "title": "Notes",
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        "title": "Components of immunity",
        "tags": [],
        "pages": [
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            "qtext": {
              "ops": [
                {
                  "insert": "Two components of immunity"
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                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "Non specific defences"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "indent": 1,
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "Involves physical and chemical barriers"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "indent": 2,
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "Is not affected by any prior encounter with that agent"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "indent": 2,
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "Has no 'memory' for future encount"
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                  "insert": "\n"
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              ]
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      },
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        "title": "Plant Growth Hormones",
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              "ops": [
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                  "insert": "http://www.untamedscience.com/biology/plants/plant-growth-hormones/\n"
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        "title": "Innate Immunity",
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        "pages": [],
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                  "attributes": {
                    "alt": "Image result for innate immunity cells"
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                    "image": "/qimg/Types of cells 0.jpg"
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        "pages": [
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              "ops": [
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "alt": "Image result for specific adaptive immunity cells"
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                  "insert": {
                    "image": "https://cdn.kastatic.org/ka-perseus-images/8a3d77a4b9a000c4c1d2924ff7c8da23fe8c3316.png"
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        "pages": [],
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      {
        "title": "Things I'm yet to get",
        "tags": [],
        "pages": [
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              "ops": [
                {
                  "insert": "Where B and T cells mature"
                },
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                  "attributes": {
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                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
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                  "insert": "B "
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                  "insert": "cells mature in the "
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                },
                {
                  "insert": "one marrow"
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                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
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                  "insert": "T "
                },
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                  "insert": "cells mature in the "
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
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                  },
                  "insert": "T"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "hymus"
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                {
                  "attributes": {
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                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "Both cells are made in the bone marrow."
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                  "attributes": {
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                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "Humoural and cell mediated / differences"
                },
                {
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                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "link": "https://www.cliffsnotes.com/study-guides/anatomy-and-physiology/the-immune-system-and-other-body-defenses/humoral-and-cell-mediated-immune-responses"
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                  "insert": "More info"
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                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "Humoural (in humor, body fluids) immunity: "
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                  },
                  "insert": "Antigens "
                },
                {
                  "insert": "bind to "
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
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                  },
                  "insert": "B cells"
                },
                {
                  "insert": ", triggering a process that creates appropriate "
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
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                  "insert": "antibodies."
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                  "insert": "\n"
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                  "insert": "Cell mediated: Cells with"
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                  "insert": " foreign antigens "
                },
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                  "insert": "bind to "
                },
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                  "attributes": {
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                  },
                  "insert": "T cells,"
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                {
                  "insert": " "
                },
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                  "attributes": {
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                  },
                  "insert": "cytotoxic T cells"
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                  "insert": " destroy pathogens "
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                {
                  "attributes": {
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                  "insert": "or nonspecific agents "
                },
                {
                  "insert": "(eg. NK) are called to pathogen to destroy it."
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                {
                  "attributes": {
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                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "Process of how antigen causes the activation and proliferation of T cells and B cells"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
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                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "Role of dendritic cells"
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                {
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                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "APC's."
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
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                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "Processes antigen material and present on cell surface to T cells."
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                {
                  "attributes": {
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                  "insert": "\n"
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                {
                  "insert": "Act as messengers between innate and adaptive immune systems."
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                  "attributes": {
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                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "Upon phagocytosing a pathogen, they present it's antigens on MHCII markers and travel to lymph nodes."
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                  "attributes": {
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                  "insert": "\n"
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                {
                  "insert": "At lympth nodes, "
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                  "attributes": {
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                  "insert": "the specifically matching "
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                {
                  "insert": "T killer cell ("
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                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "bold": true
                  },
                  "insert": "remember, they are all unique with their markers"
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                {
                  "insert": ") are shown the antigen by dendritic cells"
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                  "attributes": {
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                  "insert": "\n"
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                {
                  "insert": "The "
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                  "insert": "T killer cell (and B cells...) will start replicating"
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                  "attributes": {
                    "indent": 1,
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                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "How clonal selection works"
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                  "attributes": {
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                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "link": "https://www.khanacademy.org/science/health-and-medicine/human-anatomy-and-physiology/introduction-to-immunology/v/clonal-selection"
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                  "insert": "Great Khan Academy Overview"
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                  "attributes": {
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                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "APC's (eg. Dendritic cells) put pathogen antigens on their MHCII markers and travel to lymph nodes."
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                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "indent": 1,
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                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "At lympth nodes, "
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "bold": true
                  },
                  "insert": "the specifically matching "
                },
                {
                  "insert": "T killer cell or B cells ("
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "bold": true
                  },
                  "insert": "remember, they are all unique with their markers"
                },
                {
                  "insert": ") are shown (bind) that their specific antigen is that of the pathogen's, and so they should be activated."
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "indent": 1,
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                  "insert": "\n"
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                  "insert": "The "
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                  "attributes": {
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                  "insert": "specifically matching, 'activated' "
                },
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                  "insert": "T and B cells start replicating. Some of the B cells become B memory cells."
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                  "attributes": {
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                  "insert": "\n\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "MHC 1, MHC 2 (and comparison)"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
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                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "Cytokines"
                },
                {
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                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "bold": true
                  },
                  "insert": "Chemokines"
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                {
                  "insert": " are "
                },
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                  "attributes": {
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                  },
                  "insert": "a type"
                },
                {
                  "insert": " of cytokine"
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                  "insert": "\n"
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                {
                  "insert": "Opsonins"
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                  "insert": "\n"
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                {
                  "insert": "Antigen processing (ie recognition of MHC as foreign to trigger immune system...)"
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                  "attributes": {
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                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "Process of inflammation"
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                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "Dendritic cells and mast cells are typically positioned on organism surfaces such as in skin, where they can rapidly respond to harm."
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                  "attributes": {
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                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "Eg. If they are in skin, they can quickly respond to a cut."
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                  "attributes": {
                    "indent": 2,
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                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "Damaged cells release chemokines (general word for sig. molecules.) to signal that they have been damaged."
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                  "attributes": {
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                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "Mast cells activated (by pathogen, damaged cells, etc.) and release "
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                  "attributes": {
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                  "insert": "histamine"
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                  "attributes": {
                    "indent": 1,
                    "list": "bullet"
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                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "Histamine causes "
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                  "attributes": {
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                  "insert": "vasodilation, "
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                  "insert": "and blood cells become "
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                  "attributes": {
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                  "insert": "more porous,"
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                  "insert": " allowing more leukocytes (which bump into the outside of the blood vessel, "
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                  "insert": "margination"
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                  "insert": ", eventually leaving the blood vessel, "
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                  "attributes": {
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                  },
                  "insert": "extravasation"
                },
                {
                  "insert": ") to access the area."
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                  "attributes": {
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                  "insert": "\n"
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              "ops": [
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                  "insert": "Epitome"
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                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "Effector Cells: B cells that have been activated, are able to release antibodies. The alternative to a cell becoming a B memory cell."
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                {
                  "attributes": {
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                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "Opsonization: "
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                {
                  "attributes": {
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                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "Agglutinisation: The binding of antibodies to multiple antigens, globulating the antigen presenters and effectively disabling them and making it easier for macrophages to find and destroy them."
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                {
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                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "MHC: Major histocompaitibility complex."
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                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "MHC I: Self. Good. Presented by normal cells in the body. If a cell is infected by a virus, it's MHCI markers get messed up and it gets killed by a NK."
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                {
                  "attributes": {
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                  "insert": "\n"
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                  "insert": "MHC II: On macrophages, dendritic cells, B cells. Bind to fragments of exogenous (external, eg. pathogenic) antigen"
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                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "list": "bullet"
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                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "Helper T cells: "
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                  "insert": "\n"
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                  "insert": "Cytokines:"
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                  "insert": "\n"
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              "ops": [
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                  "insert": "Imune system an malfunction and react to the wrong antigens, or antigens that are normally harmless, such as those found in pollen gains, or to self antigens that are normally tolerated. "
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                  "attributes": {
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                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "Allergy, autoimmune diseases, eg. multiple sclerosis, causes of weakened immune systems such as HIV/AIDS."
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                  "attributes": {
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                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "\nHypersensitivity reactions\nType I (immediate) hypersensitivity (allergy) (IgE) "
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                  "attributes": {
                    "link": "http://highered.mheducation.com/sites/0072556781/student_view0/chapter33/animation_quiz_2.html"
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                  "insert": "animation"
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                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "Type II (Cytotoxic) hypersensitivity (IgM or IgG (complement) MAC)"
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                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "Type III (Immune complex) hypersensitivity (IgG (complement) neutrophils("
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "Type IV (delayed type) hypersensativity (T cells)"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "\nType I, immediate hypersensativity\nRapid and vigorous overreaction to antigens that would otherwise be harmless."
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                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "Antigens that callled this called allergens"
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                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "Include pollen, fur, house dist, latex and certain foods"
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                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "Can rsult in mild to life threatening reaction known as anaphylaxis."
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                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "Process"
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                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "Allergen: Central idea: mast cell releases histamine. "
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "indent": 1,
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "Allergen reactions mediated by IgE antibodies. Produced by plasma cells and travels in blood stream."
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "indent": 1,
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "When it comes in contact with mast cells, binds to receptors. "
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "indent": 1,
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "Subsequent exposure to the same allergen, the allergen binds to a pair or adjacent IgE molecules, cross linking the two IgE molecules."
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "indent": 1,
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "This binding triggers a signal transduction cascade that causes the mast cells to release histmines."
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "indent": 1,
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "Blood vessel dilation, decrease in blood pressure, increase in blood vessel permeability, activation of fluid secreting cells."
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "indent": 2,
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "Type II, cytotoxic hypersensitivity\nInvolve IgM and IgG."
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "Role of IgM"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "indent": 1,
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "Role of IgG"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "indent": 1,
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "Can take hours to develop."
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "Process"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "Complement fixation and cell lysis of cells that antibodies bind to"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "indent": 1,
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "Eg. Antibody mediated destruction of blood cells that occurs in the newborn when the mother produces antibodies directus against Rhesus antigen on foetal red blood cells."
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": {
                    "image": "/qimg/8.2 Diseases of the immune system 0.jpg"
                  }
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "\nType III, immune complex hypersensitivity\nLike type II cytotoxic hypersensitivity, involves IgG, and sometimes IgM."
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "However, antibodies directed aginst soluble antigens, not antigens on the cell surface or extracellular matrix. "
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "When antibodies bind to soluble antigens, they form antigen-antibody complexes that can be deposited in tissues, causing inflammation and damage."
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "Eg. Serum sickness. When immune complexes form as a result of a person's antibodies binding to a foreign antigen in serum they have been injected with."
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "\nType IV, delayed type hypersensitivity\nUnlike type I, II and III, which are all mediated by antibodies, type 4 mediated by helper T lymphocutes, which activate macrophages and eosinophils to produce inflammatory responses, and cytotoxic T lymphcytes, which directly attack and kill other cells. "
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "Delayed, can take days to develop."
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "Eg. Rash caused by coming into contact with poison ivy, which is a lipid coluble and can cross cell membrane, which, once inside the cell, causes new peptides to be produced. They peptides then delivered to the cell surface, where they are recognised by cytotoxic T cells."
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                }
              ]
            }
          }
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      {
        "title": "Hypersensitivities",
        "tags": [],
        "pages": [
          {
            "type": "text",
            "qtext": {
              "ops": [
                {
                  "insert": "Links:\nHigher ed animations"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "link": "http://highered.mheducation.com/sites/0072556781/student_view0/chapter33/animation_quiz_5.html"
                  },
                  "insert": "Type two"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "indent": 1,
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "Hypersensitivity reactions\nType I (immediate) hypersensitivity (allergy) (IgE)"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "Type II (Cytotoxic) hypersensitivity (IgM or IgG (complement) MAC)"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "Type III (Immune complex) hypersensitivity (IgG (complement) neutrophils("
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "Type IV (delayed type) hypersensativity (T cells)"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "\nType I, immediate hypersensativity\nRapid and vigorous overreaction to antigens that would otherwise be harmless."
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "Antigens that callled this called allergens"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "Include pollen, fur, house dist, latex and certain foods"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "Can rsult in mild to life threatening reaction known as anaphylaxis."
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "Process"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "Allergen: Central idea: mast cell releases histamine. "
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "indent": 1,
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "Allergen reactions mediated by IgE antibodies. Produced by plasma cells and travels in blood stream."
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "indent": 1,
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "When it comes in contact with mast cells, binds to receptors. "
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "indent": 1,
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "Subsequent exposure to the same allergen, the allergen binds to a pair or adjacent IgE molecules, cross linking the two IgE molecules."
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "indent": 1,
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "This binding triggers a signal transduction cascade that causes the mast cells to release histmines."
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "indent": 1,
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "Blood vessel dilation, decrease in blood pressure, increase in blood vessel permeability, activation of fluid secreting cells."
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "indent": 2,
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "Type II, cytotoxic hypersensitivity\nInvolve IgM and IgG."
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "Can take hours to develop."
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "Eg. Antibody mediated destruction of blood cells that occurs in the newborn when the mother produces antibodies directus against Rhesus antigen on foetal red blood cells."
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "\nType III, immune complex hypersensitivity\nLike type II cytotoxic hypersensitivity, involves IgG, and sometimes IgM."
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "However, antibodies directed aginst soluble antigens, not antigens on the cell surface or extracellular matrix. "
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "When antibodies bind to soluble antigens, they form antigen-antibody complexes that can be deposited in tissues, causing inflammation and damage."
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "Eg. Serum sickness. When immune complexes form as a result of a person's antibodies binding to a foreign antigen in serum they have been injected with."
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "\nType IV, delayed type hypersensitivity\nUnlike type I, II and III, which are all mediated by antibodies, type 4 mediated by helper T lymphocutes, which activate macrophages and eosinophils to produce inflammatory responses, and cytotoxic T lymphcytes, which directly attack and kill other cells. "
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "Delayed, can take days to develop."
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "Eg. Rash caused by coming into contact with poison ivy, which is a lipid coluble and can cross cell membrane, which, once inside the cell, causes new peptides to be produced. They peptides then delivered to the cell surface, where they are recognised by cytotoxic T cells."
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "\n"
                }
              ]
            }
          }
        ],
        "id": "gXOJ9glFFG",
        "saveStatus": "Saved."
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      {
        "title": "Autoimmune diseases",
        "tags": [],
        "pages": [
          {
            "type": "text",
            "qtext": {
              "ops": [
                {
                  "insert": "Normally T and B lymphocytes that are reactive against self antigens are destroyed. This means that when your immune response is workin properly it is directed against non self antigens, not against self antigens. This is known as self tolerence. "
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "Autoimmune diseases result from a failure of self tolerence. Adaptive immune response becomes directed at specific self antigens."
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "Types:"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "Organ specific autoimmune diseases. Localised to a particular part of the body."
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "indent": 1,
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "Generalised autoimmune diseases: Occur widely throughout the body."
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "indent": 1,
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "Examples"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "Autoimmune haemolytic anaemia"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "indent": 1,
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "Rheumatoid arthritis"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "indent": 1,
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "Type 1 diabetes"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "indent": 1,
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "Multiple sclerosis"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "indent": 1,
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "Immunedeficency"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "The opposite to hypersensitivity reactions. Occurs when the immune system cannot respond to antigens or fails to react at all."
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "Two main forms: Primary and secondary."
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "Primary: Congental. Child born with deficiency."
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "indent": 1,
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "Secondary: Acquired, not genetic. Can be temporary or permanent. "
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "indent": 1,
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "Can develop as a result of severe stress or malnutrition."
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "indent": 1,
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "Eg. AIDS"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "indent": 1,
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "HIV/AIDS"
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                },
                {
                  "insert": "Retrovirus: RNA virus that makes a DNA copy of it's genetic information by reverse transcription. Viral DNA inserted into the host cell DNA. Makes cell produce virus."
                },
                {
                  "attributes": {
                    "indent": 1,
                    "list": "bullet"
                  },
                  "insert": "\n"
                }
              ]
            }
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        "title": "Multiple Sclerosis",
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