biology2e_subchapter_to_learning_goal.json

{"1.1 The Science of Biology": ["Identify the shared characteristics of the natural sciences", "Summarize the steps of the scientific method", "Compare inductive reasoning with deductive reasoning", "Describe the goals of basic science and applied science"], "1.2 Themes and Concepts of Biology": ["Identify and describe the properties of life", "Describe the levels of organization among living things", "Recognize and interpret a phylogenetic tree", "List examples of different subdisciplines in biology"], "2.1 Atoms, Isotopes, Ions, and Molecules: The Building Blocks": ["Define matter and elements", "Describe the interrelationship between protons, neutrons, and electrons", "Compare the ways in which electrons can be donated or shared between atoms", "Explain the ways in which naturally occurring elements combine to create molecules, cells, tissues, organ systems, and organisms"], "2.2 Water": ["Describe the properties of water that are critical to maintaining life", "Explain why water is an excellent solvent ", "Provide examples of water\u2019s cohesive and adhesive properties", "Discuss the role of acids, bases, and buffers in homeostasis"], "2.3 Carbon": ["Explain why carbon is important for life", "Describe the role of functional groups in biological molecules"], "3.1 Synthesis of Biological Macromolecules": ["Understand macromolecule synthesis", "Explain dehydration (or condensation) and hydrolysis reactions"], "3.2 Carbohydrates": ["Discuss the role of carbohydrates in cells and in the extracellular materials of animals and plants", "Explain carbohydrate classifications", "List common monosaccharides, disaccharides, and polysaccharides"], "3.3 Lipids": ["Describe the four major types of lipids", "Explain the role of fats in storing energy", "Differentiate between saturated and unsaturated fatty acids", "Describe phospholipids and their role in cells", "Define the basic structure of a steroid and some steroid functions", "Explain how cholesterol helps maintain the plasma membrane's fluid nature"], "3.4 Proteins": ["Describe the functions proteins perform in the cell and in tissues", "Discuss the relationship between amino acids and proteins", "Explain the four levels of protein organization", "Describe the ways in which protein shape and function are linked"], "3.5 Nucleic Acids": ["Describe nucleic acids' structure and define the two types of nucleic acids", "Explain DNA's structure and role", "Explain RNA's structure and roles"], "4.1 Studying Cells": ["Describe the role of cells in organisms", "Compare and contrast light microscopy and electron microscopy", "Summarize cell theory"], "4.2 Prokaryotic Cells": ["Name examples of prokaryotic and eukaryotic organisms", "Compare and contrast prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells", "Describe the relative sizes of different cells", "Explain why cells must be small"], "4.3 Eukaryotic Cells": ["Describe the structure of eukaryotic cells", "Compare animal cells with plant cells", "State the role of the plasma membrane", "Summarize the functions of the major cell organelles"], "4.4 The Endomembrane System and Proteins": ["List the components of the endomembrane system", "Recognize the relationship between the endomembrane system and its functions"], "4.5 The Cytoskeleton": ["Describe the cytoskeleton", "Compare the roles of microfilaments, intermediate filaments, and microtubules", "Compare and contrast cilia and flagella", "Summarize the differences among the components of prokaryotic cells, animal cells, and plant cells"], "4.6 Connections between Cells and Cellular Activities": ["Describe the extracellular matrix", "List examples of the ways that plant cells and animal cells communicate with adjacent cells", "Summarize the roles of tight junctions, desmosomes, gap junctions, and plasmodesmata"], "5.1 Components and Structure": ["Understand the cell membrane fluid mosaic model", "Describe phospholipid, protein, and carbohydrate functions in membranes", "Discuss membrane fluidity"], "5.2 Passive Transport": ["Explain why and how passive transport occurs", "Understand the osmosis and diffusion processes", "Define tonicity and its relevance to passive transport"], "5.3 Active Transport": ["Understand how electrochemical gradients affect ions", "Distinguish between primary active transport and secondary active transport"], "5.4 Bulk Transport": ["Describe endocytosis, including phagocytosis, pinocytosis, and receptor-mediated endocytosis", "Understand the process of exocytosis"], "6.1 Energy and Metabolism": ["Explain metabolic pathways and describe the two major types", "Discuss how chemical reactions play a role in energy transfer"], "6.2 Potential, Kinetic, Free, and Activation Energy": ["Define \u201cenergy\u201d", "Explain the difference between kinetic and potential energy", "Discuss the concepts of free energy and activation energy", "Describe endergonic and exergonic reactions"], "6.3 The Laws of Thermodynamics": ["Discuss the concept of entropy", "Explain the first and second laws of thermodynamics"], "6.4 ATP: Adenosine Triphosphate": ["Explain ATP's role as the cellular energy currency", "Describe how energy releases through ATP hydrolysis"], "6.5 Enzymes": ["Describe the role of enzymes in metabolic pathways", "Explain how enzymes function as molecular catalysts", "Discuss enzyme regulation by various factors"], "7.1 Energy in Living Systems": ["Discuss the importance of electrons in the transfer of energy in living systems", "Explain how ATP is used by cells as an energy source"], "7.2 Glycolysis": ["Describe the overall result in terms of molecules produced during the chemical breakdown of glucose by glycolysis", "Compare the output of glycolysis in terms of ATP molecules and NADH molecules produced"], "7.3 Oxidation of Pyruvate and the Citric Acid Cycle": ["Explain how a circular pathway, such as the citric acid cycle, fundamentally differs from a linear biochemical pathway, such as glycolysis", "Describe how pyruvate, the product of glycolysis, is prepared for entry into the citric acid cycle"], "7.4 Oxidative Phosphorylation": ["Describe how electrons move through the electron transport chain and explain what happens to their energy levels during this process", "Explain how a proton (H<sup>+</sup>) gradient is established and maintained by the electron transport chain"], "7.5 Metabolism without Oxygen": ["Discuss the fundamental difference between anaerobic cellular respiration and fermentation", "Describe the type of fermentation that readily occurs in animal cells and the conditions that initiate that fermentation"], "7.6 Connections of Carbohydrate, Protein, and Lipid Metabolic Pathways": ["Discuss the ways in which carbohydrate metabolic pathways, glycolysis, and the citric acid cycle interrelate with protein and lipid metabolic pathways", "Explain why metabolic pathways are not considered closed systems"], "7.7 Regulation of Cellular Respiration": ["Describe how feedback inhibition would affect the production of an intermediate or product in a pathway", "Identify the mechanism that controls the rate of the transport of electrons through the electron transport chain"], "8.1 Overview of Photosynthesis": ["Explain the significance of photosynthesis to other living organisms", "Describe the main structures involved in photosynthesis", "Identify the substrates and products of photosynthesis"], "8.2 The Light-Dependent Reactions of Photosynthesis": ["Explain how plants absorb energy from sunlight", "Describe short and long wavelengths of light", "Describe how and where photosynthesis takes place within a plant"], "8.3 Using Light Energy to Make Organic Molecules": ["Describe the Calvin cycle", "Define carbon fixation", "Explain how photosynthesis works in the energy cycle of all living organisms"], "9.1 Signaling Molecules and Cellular Receptors": ["Describe four types of signaling mechanisms found in multicellular organisms", "Compare internal receptors with cell-surface receptors", "Recognize the relationship between a ligand\u2019s structure and its mechanism of action"], "9.2 Propagation of the Signal": ["Explain how the binding of a ligand initiates signal transduction throughout a cell", "Recognize the role of phosphorylation in the transmission of intracellular signals", "Evaluate the role of second messengers in signal transmission"], "9.3 Response to the Signal": ["Describe how signaling pathways direct protein expression, cellular metabolism, and cell growth", "Identify the function of PKC in signal transduction pathways", "Recognize the role of apoptosis in the development and maintenance of a healthy organism"], "9.4 Signaling in Single-Celled Organisms": ["Describe how single-celled yeasts use cell signaling to communicate with one another", "Relate the role of quorum sensing to the ability of some bacteria to form biofilms"], "10.1 Cell Division": ["Describe the structure of prokaryotic and eukaryotic genomes", "Distinguish between chromosomes, genes, and traits", "Describe the mechanisms of chromosome compaction"], "10.2 The Cell Cycle": ["Describe the three stages of interphase", "Discuss the behavior of chromosomes during karyokinesis/mitosis", "Explain how the cytoplasmic content is divided during cytokinesis", "Define the quiescent G<sub>0</sub> phase"], "10.3 Control of the Cell Cycle": ["Understand how the cell cycle is controlled by mechanisms that are both internal and external to the cell", "Explain how the three internal \u201ccontrol checkpoints\u201d occur at the end of G<sub>1</sub>, at the G<sub>2</sub>/M transition, and during metaphase", "Describe the molecules that control the cell cycle through positive and negative regulation"], "10.4 Cancer and the Cell Cycle": ["Describe how cancer is caused by uncontrolled cell growth", "Understand how proto-oncogenes are normal cell genes that, when mutated, become oncogenes", "Describe how tumor suppressors function", "Explain how mutant tumor suppressors cause cancer"], "10.5 Prokaryotic Cell Division": ["Describe the process of binary fission in prokaryotes", "Explain how FtsZ and tubulin proteins are examples of homology"], "11.1 The Process of Meiosis": ["Describe the behavior of chromosomes during meiosis, and the differences between the first and second meiotic divisions", "Describe the cellular events that take place during meiosis", "Explain the differences between meiosis and mitosis", "Explain the mechanisms within the meiotic process that produce genetic variation among the haploid gametes"], "11.2 Sexual Reproduction": ["Explain that meiosis and sexual reproduction are highly evolved traits", "Identify variation among offspring as a potential evolutionary advantage of sexual reproduction", "Describe the three different life-cycle types among sexually reproducing multicellular organisms."], "12.1 Mendels Experiments and the Laws of Probability": ["Describe the scientific reasons for the success of Mendel\u2019s experimental work", "Describe the expected outcomes of monohybrid crosses involving dominant and recessive alleles", "Apply the sum and product rules to calculate probabilities"], "12.2 Characteristics and Traits": ["Explain the relationship between genotypes and phenotypes in dominant and recessive gene systems", "Develop a Punnett square to calculate the expected proportions of genotypes and phenotypes in a monohybrid cross", "Explain the purpose and methods of a test cross", "Identify non-Mendelian inheritance patterns such as incomplete dominance, codominance, recessive lethals, multiple alleles, and sex linkage"], "12.3 Laws of Inheritance": ["Explain Mendel\u2019s law of segregation and independent assortment in terms of genetics and the events of meiosis", "Use the forked-line method and the probability rules to calculate the probability of genotypes and phenotypes from multiple gene crosses", "Explain the effect of linkage and recombination on gamete genotypes", "Explain the phenotypic outcomes of epistatic effects between genes"], "13.1 Chromosomal Theory and Genetic Linkage": ["Discuss Sutton\u2019s Chromosomal Theory of Inheritance", "Describe genetic linkage", "Explain the process of homologous recombination, or crossing over", "Describe chromosome creation", "Calculate the distances between three genes on a chromosome using a three-point test cross"], "13.2 Chromosomal Basis of Inherited Disorders": ["Describe how a karyogram is created", "Explain how nondisjunction leads to disorders in chromosome number", "Compare disorders that aneuploidy causes", "Describe how errors in chromosome structure occur through inversions and translocations"], "14.1 Historical Basis of Modern Understanding": ["Explain transformation of DNA", "Describe the key experiments that helped identify that DNA is the genetic material", "State and explain Chargaff\u2019s rules"], "14.2 DNA Structure and Sequencing": ["Describe the structure of DNA", "Explain the Sanger method of DNA sequencing", "Discuss the similarities and differences between eukaryotic and prokaryotic DNA"], "14.3 Basics of DNA Replication": ["Explain how the structure of DNA reveals the replication process", "Describe the Meselson and Stahl experiments"], "14.4 DNA Replication in Prokaryotes": ["Explain the process of DNA replication in prokaryotes", "Discuss the role of different enzymes and proteins in supporting this process"], "14.5 DNA Replication in Eukaryotes": ["Discuss the similarities and differences between DNA replication in eukaryotes and prokaryotes", "State the role of telomerase in DNA replication"], "14.6 DNA Repair": ["Discuss the different types of mutations in DNA", "Explain DNA repair mechanisms"], "15.1 The Genetic Code": ["Explain the \u201ccentral dogma\u201d of DNA-protein synthesis", "Describe the genetic code and how the nucleotide sequence prescribes the amino acid and the protein sequence"], "15.2 Prokaryotic Transcription": ["List the different steps in prokaryotic transcription", "Discuss the role of promoters in prokaryotic transcription", "Describe how and when transcription is terminated"], "15.3 Eukaryotic Transcription": ["List the steps in eukaryotic transcription", "Discuss the role of RNA polymerases in transcription", "Compare and contrast the three RNA polymerases", "Explain the significance of transcription factors"], "15.4 RNA Processing in Eukaryotes": ["Describe the different steps in RNA processing", "Understand the significance of exons, introns, and splicing for mRNAs", "Explain how tRNAs and rRNAs are processed"], "15.5 Ribosomes and Protein Synthesis": ["Describe the different steps in protein synthesis", "Discuss the role of ribosomes in protein synthesis"], "16.1 Regulation of Gene Expression": ["Discuss why every cell does not express all of its genes all of the time", "Describe how prokaryotic gene regulation occurs at the transcriptional level", "Discuss how eukaryotic gene regulation occurs at the epigenetic, transcriptional, post-transcriptional, translational, and post-translational levels"], "16.2 Prokaryotic Gene Regulation": ["Describe the steps involved in prokaryotic gene regulation", "Explain the roles of activators, inducers, and repressors in gene regulation"], "16.3 Eukaryotic Epigenetic Gene Regulation": ["Explain how chromatin remodeling controls transcriptional access", "Describe how access to DNA is controlled by histone modification", "Describe how DNA methylation is related to epigenetic gene changes"], "16.4 Eukaryotic Transcription Gene Regulation": ["Discuss the role of transcription factors in gene regulation", "Explain how enhancers and repressors regulate gene expression"], "16.5 Eukaryotic Post-transcriptional Gene Regulation": ["Understand RNA splicing and explain its role in regulating gene expression", "Describe the importance of RNA stability in gene regulation"], "16.6 Eukaryotic Translational and Post-translational Gene Regulation": ["Understand the process of translation and discuss its key factors", "Describe how the initiation complex controls translation", "Explain the different ways in which the post-translational control of gene expression takes place"], "16.7 Cancer and Gene Regulation": ["Describe how changes to gene expression can cause cancer", "Explain how changes to gene expression at different levels can disrupt the cell cycle", "Discuss how understanding regulation of gene expression can lead to better drug design"], "17.1 Biotechnology": ["Describe gel electrophoresis", "Explain molecular and reproductive cloning", "Describe biotechnology uses in medicine and agriculture"], "17.2 Mapping Genomes": ["Define genomics", "Describe genetic and physical maps", "Describe genomic mapping methods"], "17.3 Whole-Genome Sequencing": ["Describe three types of sequencing", "Define whole-genome sequencing"], "17.4 Applying Genomics": ["Explain pharmacogenomics", "Define polygenic"], "17.5 Genomics and Proteomics": ["Explain systems biology", "Describe a proteome", "Define protein signature"], "18.1 Understanding Evolution": ["Describe how scientists developed the present-day theory of evolution", "Define adaptation", "Explain convergent and divergent evolution", "Describe homologous and vestigial structures", "Discuss misconceptions about the theory of evolution"], "18.2 Formation of New Species": ["Define species and describe how scientists identify species as different", "Describe genetic variables that lead to speciation", "Identify prezygotic and postzygotic reproductive barriers", "Explain allopatric and sympatric speciation", "Describe adaptive radiation"], "18.3 Reconnection and Speciation Rates": ["Describe pathways of species evolution in hybrid zones", "Explain the two major theories on rates of speciation"], "19.1 Population Evolution": ["Define population genetics and describe how scientists use population genetics in studying population evolution", "Define the Hardy-Weinberg principle and discuss its importance"], "19.2 Population Genetics": ["Describe the different types of variation in a population", "Explain why only natural selection can act upon heritable variation", "Describe genetic drift and the bottleneck effect", "Explain how each evolutionary force can influence a population's allele frequencies"], "19.3 Adaptive Evolution": ["Explain the different ways natural selection can shape populations", "Describe how these different forces can lead to different outcomes in terms of the population variation"], "20.1 Organizing Life on Earth": ["Discuss the need for a comprehensive classification system", "List the different levels of the taxonomic classification system", "Describe how systematics and taxonomy relate to phylogeny", "Discuss a phylogenetic tree's components and purpose"], "20.2 Determining Evolutionary Relationships": ["Compare homologous and analogous traits", "Discuss the purpose of cladistics", "Describe maximum parsimony"], "20.3 Perspectives on the Phylogenetic Tree": ["Describe horizontal gene transfer", "Illustrate how prokaryotes and eukaryotes transfer genes horizontally", "Identify the web and ring models of phylogenetic relationships and describe how they differ from the original phylogenetic tree concept"], "21.1 Viral Evolution, Morphology, and Classification": ["Describe how viruses were first discovered and how they are detected", "Discuss three hypotheses about how viruses evolved", "Describe the general structure of a virus", "Recognize the basic shapes of viruses", "Understand past and emerging classification systems for viruses", "Describe the basis for the Baltimore classification system"], "21.2 Virus Infections and Hosts": ["List the steps of replication and explain what occurs at each step", "Describe the lytic and lysogenic cycles of virus replication", "Explain the transmission of plant and animal viruses", "Discuss some of the diseases caused by plant and animal viruses", "Discuss the economic impact of plant and animal viruses"], "21.3 Prevention and Treatment of Viral Infections": ["Identify major viral illnesses that affect humans", "Compare vaccinations and anti-viral drugs as medical approaches to viruses"], "21.4 Other Acellular Entities: Prions and Viroids": ["Describe prions and their basic properties", "Define viroids and their targets of infection"], "22.1 Prokaryotic Diversity": ["Describe the evolutionary history of prokaryotes", "Discuss the distinguishing features of extremophiles", "Explain why it is difficult to culture prokaryotes"], "22.2 Structure of Prokaryotes: Bacteria and Archaea": ["Describe the basic structure of a typical prokaryote", "Describe important differences in structure between Archaea and Bacteria"], "22.3 Prokaryotic Metabolism": ["Identify the macronutrients needed by prokaryotes, and explain their importance", "Describe the ways in which prokaryotes get energy and carbon for life processes", "Describe the roles of prokaryotes in the carbon and nitrogen cycles"], "22.4 Bacterial Diseases in Humans": ["Identify bacterial diseases that caused historically important plagues and epidemics", "Describe the link between biofilms and foodborne diseases", "Explain how overuse of antibiotics may be creating \u201csuper bugs\u201d", "Explain the importance of MRSA with respect to the problems of antibiotic resistance"], "22.5 Beneficial Prokaryotes": ["Explain the need for nitrogen fixation and how it is accomplished", "Describe the beneficial effects of bacteria that colonize our skin and digestive tracts", "Identify prokaryotes used during the processing of food", "Describe the use of prokaryotes in bioremediation"], "23.1 Eukaryotic Origins": ["List the unifying characteristics of eukaryotes ", "Describe what scientists know about the origins of eukaryotes based on the last common ancestor", "Explain the endosymbiotic theory"], "23.2 Characteristics of Protists": ["Describe the cell structure characteristics of protists", "Describe the metabolic diversity of protists", "Describe the life cycle diversity of protists"], "23.3 Groups of Protists": ["Describe representative protist organisms from each of the six presently recognized supergroups of eukaryotes", "Identify the evolutionary relationships of plants, animals, and fungi within the six presently recognized supergroups of eukaryotes", "Identify defining features of protists in each of the six supergroups of eukaryotes."], "23.4 Ecology of Protists": ["Describe the role that protists play in the ecosystem", "Describe important pathogenic species of protists"], "24.1 Characteristics of Fungi": ["List the characteristics of fungi", "Describe the composition of the mycelium", "Describe the mode of nutrition of fungi", "Explain sexual and asexual reproduction in fungi"], "24.2 Classifications of Fungi": ["Identify fungi and place them into the five major phyla according to current classification", "Describe each phylum in terms of major representative species and patterns of reproduction"], "24.3 Ecology of Fungi": ["Describe the role of fungi in various ecosystems", "Describe mutualistic relationships of fungi with plant roots and photosynthetic organisms", "Describe the beneficial relationship between some fungi and insects"], "24.4 Fungal Parasites and Pathogens": ["Describe some fungal parasites and pathogens of plants", "Describe the different types of fungal infections in humans", "Explain why antifungal therapy is hampered by the similarity between fungal and animal cells"], "24.5 Importance of Fungi in Human Life": ["Describe the importance of fungi to the balance of the environment", "Summarize the role of fungi in agriculture and food and beverage preparation", "Describe the importance of fungi in the chemical and pharmaceutical industries", "Discuss the role of fungi as model organisms"], "25.1 Early Plant Life": ["Discuss the challenges to plant life on land", "Describe the adaptations that allowed plants to colonize the land", "Describe the timeline of plant evolution and the impact of land plants on other living things"], "25.2 Green Algae: Precursors of Land Plants": ["Describe the traits shared by green algae and land plants", "Explain why charophytes are considered the closest algal relative to land plants", "Explain how current phylogenetic relationships are reshaped by comparative analysis of DNA sequences"], "25.3 Bryophytes": ["Identify the main characteristics of bryophytes", "Describe the distinguishing traits of liverworts, hornworts, and mosses", "Chart the development of land adaptations in the bryophytes", "Describe the events in the bryophyte lifecycle"], "25.4 Seedless Vascular Plants": ["Identify the new traits that first appear in seedless tracheophytes", "Discuss how each trait is important for adaptation to life on land", "Identify the classes of seedless tracheophytes", "Describe the life cycle of a fern", "Explain the role of seedless plants in the ecosystem"], "26.1 Evolution of Seed Plants": ["Describe the two major innovations that allowed seed plants to reproduce in the absence of water", "Explain when seed plants first appeared and when gymnosperms became the dominant plant group", "Discuss the purpose of pollen grains and seeds", "Describe the significance of angiosperms bearing both flowers and fruit"], "26.2 Gymnosperms": ["Discuss the type of seeds produced by gymnosperms, as well as other characteristics of gymnosperms", "Identify the geological era dominated by the gymnosperms and describe the conditions to which they were adapted", "List the four groups of modern-day gymnosperms and provide examples of each", "Describe the life cycle of a typical gymnosperm"], "26.3 Angiosperms": ["Explain why angiosperms are the dominant form of plant life in most terrestrial ecosystems ", "Describe the main parts of a flower and their functions", "Detail the life cycle of a typical gymnosperm and angiosperm ", "Discuss the similarities and differences between the two main groups of flowering plants"], "26.4 The Role of Seed Plants": ["Explain how angiosperm diversity is due, in part, to multiple complex interactions with animals", "Describe ways in which pollination occurs", "Discuss the roles that plants play in ecosystems and how deforestation threatens plant biodiversity"], "27.1 Features of the Animal Kingdom": ["List the features that distinguish the kingdom Animalia from other kingdoms", "Explain the processes of animal reproduction and embryonic development", "Describe the roles that Hox genes play in development"], "27.2 Features Used to Classify Animals": ["Explain the differences in animal body plans that support basic animal classification", "Compare and contrast the embryonic development of protostomes and deuterostomes"], "27.3 Animal Phylogeny": ["Interpret the metazoan phylogenetic tree", "Describe the types of data that scientists use to construct and revise animal phylogeny", "List some of the relationships within the modern phylogenetic tree that have been discovered as a result of modern molecular data"], "27.4 The Evolutionary History of the Animal Kingdom": ["Describe the features that characterized the earliest animals and approximately when they appeared on earth", "Explain the significance of the Cambrian period for animal evolution and the changes in animal diversity that took place during that time", "Describe some of the unresolved questions surrounding the Cambrian explosion", "Discuss the implications of mass animal extinctions that have occurred in evolutionary history"], "28.1 Phylum Porifera": ["Describe the organizational features of the simplest multicellular organisms", "Explain the various body forms and bodily functions of sponges"], "28.2 Phylum Cnidaria": ["Compare structural and organization characteristics of Porifera and Cnidaria", "Describe the progressive development of tissues and their relevance to animal complexity", "Identify the two general body forms found in the Cnidaria", "Describe the identifying features of the major cnidarian classes"], "28.3 Superphylum Lophotrochozoa: Flatworms, Rotifers, and Nemerteans": ["Describe the unique anatomical and morphological features of flatworms, rotifers, and Nemertea", "Identify an important extracoelomic cavity found in Nemertea", "Explain the key features of Platyhelminthes and their importance as parasites"], "28.4 Superphylum Lophotrochozoa: Molluscs and Annelids": ["Describe the unique anatomical and morphological features of molluscs and annelids", "Describe the formation of the coelom", "Identify an important extracoelomic cavity in molluscs", "Describe the major body regions of Mollusca and how they vary in different molluscan classes", "Discuss the advantages of true body segmentation", "Describe the features of animals classified in phylum Annelida"], "28.5 Superphylum Ecdysozoa: Nematodes and Tardigrades": ["Describe the structural organization of nematodes", "Describe the importance of Caenorhabditis elegans in research", "Describe the features of Tardigrades"], "28.6 Superphylum Ecdysozoa: Arthropods": ["Compare the internal systems and appendage specializations of phylum Arthropoda", "Discuss the environmental importance of arthropods", "Discuss the reasons for arthropod success and abundance"], "28.7 Superphylum Deuterostomia": ["Describe the distinguishing characteristics of echinoderms ", "Describe the distinguishing characteristics of chordates"], "29.1 Chordates": ["Describe the distinguishing characteristics of chordates", "Identify the derived characters of craniates that sets them apart from other chordates", "Describe the developmental fate of the notochord in vertebrates"], "29.2 Fishes": ["Describe the difference between jawless and jawed fishes", "Discuss the distinguishing features of sharks and rays compared to other modern fishes"], "29.3 Amphibians": ["Describe the important difference between the life cycle of amphibians and the life cycles of other vertebrates", "Distinguish between the characteristics of Urodela, Anura, and Apoda", "Describe the evolutionary history of amphibians"], "29.4 Reptiles": ["Describe the main characteristics of amniotes", "Explain the difference between anapsids, synapsids, and diapsids, and give an example of each", "Identify the characteristics of reptiles", "Discuss the evolution of reptiles"], "29.5 Birds": ["Describe the evolutionary history of birds", "Describe the derived characteristics in birds that facilitate flight"], "29.6 Mammals": ["Name and describe the distinguishing features of the three main groups of mammals", "Describe the likely line of evolutionary descent that produced mammals", "List some derived features that may have arisen in response to mammals\u2019 need for constant, high-level metabolism", "Identify the major clades of eutherian mammals"], "29.7 The Evolution of Primates": ["Describe the derived features that distinguish primates from other animals", "Describe the defining features of the major groups of primates", "Identify the major hominin precursors to modern humans", "Explain why scientists are having difficulty determining the true lines of descent in hominids"], "30.1 The Plant Body": ["Describe the shoot organ system and the root organ system", "Distinguish between meristematic tissue and permanent tissue", "Identify and describe the three regions where plant growth occurs", "Summarize the roles of dermal tissue, vascular tissue, and ground tissue", "Compare simple plant tissue with complex plant tissue"], "30.2 Stems": ["Describe the main function and basic structure of stems", "Compare and contrast the roles of dermal tissue, vascular tissue, and ground tissue", "Distinguish between primary growth and secondary growth in stems", "Summarize the origin of annual rings", "List and describe examples of modified stems"], "30.3 Roots": ["Identify the two types of root systems", "Describe the three zones of the root tip and summarize the role of each zone in root growth", "Describe the structure of the root", "List and describe examples of modified roots"], "30.4 Leaves": ["Identify the parts of a typical leaf", "Describe the internal structure and function of a leaf", "Compare and contrast simple leaves and compound leaves", "List and describe examples of modified leaves"], "30.5 Transport of Water and Solutes in Plants": ["Define water potential and explain how it is influenced by solutes, pressure, gravity, and the matric potential", "Describe how water potential, evapotranspiration, and stomatal regulation influence how water is transported in plants", "Explain how photosynthates are transported in plants"], "30.6 Plant Sensory Systems and Responses": ["Describe how red and blue light affect plant growth and metabolic activities", "Discuss gravitropism", "Understand how hormones affect plant growth and development", "Describe thigmotropism, thigmonastism, and thigmogenesis", "Explain how plants defend themselves from predators and respond to wounds"], "31.1 Nutritional Requirements of Plants": ["Describe how plants obtain nutrients", "List the elements and compounds required for proper plant nutrition", "Describe an essential nutrient"], "31.2 The Soil": ["Describe how soils are formed", "Explain soil composition", "Describe a soil profile"], "31.3 Nutritional Adaptations of Plants": ["Understand the nutritional adaptations of plants", "Describe mycorrhizae", "Explain nitrogen fixation"], "32.1 Reproductive Development and Structure": ["Describe the two stages of a plant\u2019s lifecycle ", "Compare and contrast male and female gametophytes and explain how they form in angiosperms", "Describe the reproductive structures of a plant", "Describe the components of a complete flower ", "Describe the development of microsporangium and megasporangium in gymnosperms"], "32.2 Pollination and Fertilization": ["Describe what must occur for plant fertilization", "Explain cross-pollination and the ways in which it takes place", "Describe the process that leads to the development of a seed", "Define double fertilization"], "32.3 Asexual Reproduction": ["Compare the mechanisms and methods of natural and artificial asexual reproduction", "Describe the advantages and disadvantages of natural and artificial asexual reproduction", "Discuss plant life spans"], "33.1 Animal Form and Function": ["Describe the various types of body plans that occur in animals", "Describe limits on animal size and shape", "Relate bioenergetics to body size, levels of activity, and the environment"], "33.2 Animal Primary Tissues": ["Describe epithelial tissues", "Discuss the different types of connective tissues in animals", "Describe three types of muscle tissues", "Describe nervous tissue"], "33.3 Homeostasis": ["Define homeostasis", "Describe the factors affecting homeostasis ", "Discuss positive and negative feedback mechanisms used in homeostasis", "Describe thermoregulation of endothermic and ectothermic animals"], "34.1 Digestive Systems": ["Explain the processes of digestion and absorption", "Compare and contrast different types of digestive systems", "Explain the specialized functions of the organs involved in processing food in the body", "Describe the ways in which organs work together to digest food and absorb nutrients"], "34.2 Nutrition and Energy Production": ["Explain why an animal\u2019s diet should be balanced and meet the needs of the body", "Define the primary components of food", "Describe the essential nutrients required for cellular function that cannot be synthesized by the animal body", "Explain how energy is produced through diet and digestion", "Describe how excess carbohydrates and energy are stored in the body"], "34.3 Digestive System Processes": ["Describe the process of digestion", "Detail the steps involved in digestion and absorption", "Define elimination", "Explain the role of both the small and large intestines in absorption"], "34.4 Digestive System Regulation": ["Discuss the role of neural regulation in digestive processes", "Explain how hormones regulate digestion"], "35.1 Neurons and Glial Cells": ["List and describe the functions of the structural components of a neuron", "List and describe the four main types of neurons", "Compare the functions of different types of glial cells"], "35.2 How Neurons Communicate": ["Describe the basis of the resting membrane potential", "Explain the stages of an action potential and how action potentials are propagated", "Explain the similarities and differences between chemical and electrical synapses", "Describe long-term potentiation and long-term depression"], "35.3 The Central Nervous System": ["Identify the spinal cord, cerebral lobes, and other brain areas on a diagram of the brain", "Describe the basic functions of the spinal cord, cerebral lobes, and other brain areas"], "35.4 The Peripheral Nervous System": ["Describe the organization and functions of the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems", "Describe the organization and function of the sensory-somatic nervous system"], "35.5 Nervous System Disorders": ["Describe the symptoms, potential causes, and treatment of several examples of nervous system disorders"], "36.1 Sensory Processes": ["Identify the general and special senses in humans", "Describe three important steps in sensory perception", "Explain the concept of just-noticeable difference in sensory perception"], "36.2 Somatosensation": ["Describe four important mechanoreceptors in human skin", "Describe the topographical distribution of somatosensory receptors between glabrous and hairy skin", "Explain why the perception of pain is subjective"], "36.3 Taste and Smell": ["Explain in what way smell and taste stimuli differ from other sensory stimuli", "Identify the five primary tastes that can be distinguished by humans", "Explain in anatomical terms why a dog\u2019s sense of smell is more acute than a human\u2019s"], "36.4 Hearing and Vestibular Sensation": ["Describe the relationship of amplitude and frequency of a sound wave to attributes of sound", "Trace the path of sound through the auditory system to the site of transduction of sound", "Identify the structures of the vestibular system that respond to gravity"], "36.5 Vision": ["Explain how electromagnetic waves differ from sound waves", "Trace the path of light through the eye to the point of the optic nerve", "Explain tonic activity as it is manifested in photoreceptors in the retina"], "37.1 Types of Hormones": ["List the different types of hormones", "Explain their role in maintaining homeostasis"], "37.2 How Hormones Work": ["Explain how hormones work", "Discuss the role of different types of hormone receptors"], "37.3 Regulation of Body Processes": ["Explain how hormones regulate the excretory system", "Discuss the role of hormones in the reproductive system", "Describe how hormones regulate metabolism", "Explain the role of hormones in different diseases"], "37.4 Regulation of Hormone Production": ["Explain how hormone production is regulated", "Discuss the different stimuli that control hormone levels in the body"], "37.5 Endocrine Glands": ["Describe the role of different glands in the endocrine system", "Explain how the different glands work together to maintain homeostasis"], "38.1 Types of Skeletal Systems": ["Discuss the different types of skeletal systems", "Explain the role of the human skeletal system", "Compare and contrast different skeletal systems"], "38.2 Bone": ["Classify the different types of bones in the skeleton", "Explain the role of the different cell types in bone", "Explain how bone forms during development"], "38.3 Joints and Skeletal Movement": ["Classify the different types of joints on the basis of structure", "Explain the role of joints in skeletal movement"], "38.4 Muscle Contraction and Locomotion": ["Classify the different types of muscle tissue", "Explain the role of muscles in locomotion"], "39.1 Systems of Gas Exchange": ["Describe the passage of air from the outside environment to the lungs", "Explain how the lungs are protected from particulate matter"], "39.2 Gas Exchange across Respiratory Surfaces": ["Name and describe lung volumes and capacities", "Understand how gas pressure influences how gases move into and out of the body"], "39.3 Breathing": ["Describe how the structures of the lungs and thoracic cavity control the mechanics of breathing", "Explain the importance of compliance and resistance in the lungs", "Discuss problems that may arise due to a V/Q mismatch"], "39.4 Transport of Gases in Human Bodily Fluids": ["Describe how oxygen is bound to hemoglobin and transported to body tissues", "Explain how carbon dioxide is transported from body tissues to the lungs"], "40.1 Overview of the Circulatory System": ["Describe an open and closed circulatory system", "Describe interstitial fluid and hemolymph", "Compare and contrast the organization and evolution of the vertebrate circulatory system"], "40.2 Components of the Blood": ["List the basic components of the blood", "Compare red and white blood cells", "Describe blood plasma and serum"], "40.3 Mammalian Heart and Blood Vessels": ["Describe the structure of the heart and explain how cardiac muscle is different from other muscles", "Describe the cardiac cycle", "Explain the structure of arteries, veins, and capillaries, and how blood flows through the body"], "40.4 Blood Flow and Blood Pressure Regulation": ["Describe the system of blood flow through the body", "Describe how blood pressure is regulated"], "41.1 Osmoregulation and Osmotic Balance": ["Define osmosis and explain its role within molecules", "Explain why osmoregulation and osmotic balance are important body functions", "Describe active transport mechanisms", "Explain osmolarity and the way in which it is measured", "Describe osmoregulators or osmoconformers and how these tools allow animals to adapt to different environments"], "41.2 The Kidneys and Osmoregulatory Organs": ["Explain how the kidneys serve as the main osmoregulatory organs in mammalian systems", "Describe the structure of the kidneys and the functions of the parts of the kidney", "Describe how the nephron is the functional unit of the kidney and explain how it actively filters blood and generates urine", "Detail the three steps in the formation of urine: glomerular filtration, tubular reabsorption, and tubular secretion"], "41.3 Excretion Systems": ["Explain how vacuoles, present in microorganisms, work to excrete waste", "Describe the way in which flame cells and nephridia in worms perform excretory functions and maintain osmotic balance", "Explain how insects use Malpighian tubules to excrete wastes and maintain osmotic balance"], "41.4 Nitrogenous Wastes": ["Compare and contrast the way in which aquatic animals and terrestrial animals can eliminate toxic ammonia from their systems", "Compare the major byproduct of ammonia metabolism in vertebrate animals to that of birds, insects, and reptiles"], "41.5 Hormonal Control of Osmoregulatory Functions": ["Explain how hormonal cues help the kidneys synchronize the osmotic needs of the body", "Describe how hormones like epinephrine, norepinephrine, renin-angiotensin, aldosterone, anti-diuretic hormone, and atrial natriuretic peptide help regulate waste elimination, maintain correct osmolarity, and perform other osmoregulatory functions"], "42.1 Innate Immune Response": ["Describe physical and chemical immune barriers", "Explain immediate and induced innate immune responses", "Discuss natural killer cells", "Describe major histocompatibility complex I molecules", "Summarize how the proteins in a complement system function to destroy extracellular pathogens"], "42.2 Adaptive Immune Response": ["Explain adaptive immunity", "Compare and contrast adaptive and innate immunity", "Describe cell-mediated immune response and humoral immune response", "Describe immune tolerance"], "42.3 Antibodies": ["Explain cross-reactivity", "Describe the structure and function of antibodies ", "Discuss antibody production"], "42.4 Disruptions in the Immune System": ["Describe hypersensitivity", "Define autoimmunity"], "43.1 Reproduction Methods": ["Describe advantages and disadvantages of asexual and sexual reproduction", "Discuss asexual reproduction methods", "Discuss sexual reproduction methods"], "43.2 Fertilization": ["Discuss internal and external methods of fertilization", "Describe the methods used by animals for development of offspring during gestation", "Describe the anatomical adaptations that occurred in animals to facilitate reproduction"], "43.3 Human Reproductive Anatomy and Gametogenesis": ["Describe human male and female reproductive anatomies", "Discuss the human sexual response", "Describe spermatogenesis and oogenesis and discuss their differences and similarities"], "43.4 Hormonal Control of Human Reproduction": ["Describe the roles of male and female reproductive hormones", "Discuss the interplay of the ovarian and menstrual cycles", "Describe the process of menopause"], "43.5 Human Pregnancy and Birth": ["Explain fetal development during the three trimesters of gestation", "Describe labor and delivery", "Compare the efficacy and duration of various types of contraception", "Discuss causes of infertility and the therapeutic options available"], "43.6 Fertilization and Early Embryonic Development": ["Discuss how fertilization occurs", "Explain how the embryo forms from the zygote", "Discuss the role of cleavage and gastrulation in animal development"], "43.7 Organogenesis and Vertebrate Formation": ["Describe the process of organogenesis", "Identify the anatomical axes formed in vertebrates"], "44.1 The Scope of Ecology": ["Define ecology and the four basic levels of ecological research", "Describe examples of the ways in which ecology requires the integration of different scientific disciplines", "Distinguish between abiotic and biotic components of the environment", "Recognize the relationship between abiotic and biotic components of the environment"], "44.2 Biogeography": ["Define biogeography", "List and describe abiotic factors that affect the global distribution of plant and animal species", "Compare the impact of abiotic forces on aquatic and terrestrial environments", "Summarize the effects of abiotic factors on net primary productivity"], "44.3 Terrestrial Biomes": ["Identify the two major abiotic factors that determine terrestrial biomes", "Recognize distinguishing characteristics of each of the eight major terrestrial biomes"], "44.4 Aquatic Biomes": ["Describe the effects of abiotic factors on the composition of plant and animal communities in aquatic biomes ", "Compare and contrast the characteristics of the ocean zones", "Summarize the characteristics of standing water and flowing water freshwater biomes"], "44.5 Climate and the Effects of Global Climate Change": ["Define global climate change", "Summarize the effects of the Industrial Revolution on global atmospheric carbon dioxide concentration", "Describe three natural factors affecting long-term global climate", "List two or more greenhouse gases and describe their role in the greenhouse effect"], "45.1 Population Demography": ["Describe how ecologists measure population size and density", "Describe three different patterns of population distribution", "Use life tables to calculate mortality rates", "Describe the three types of survivorship curves and relate them to specific populations"], "45.2 Life Histories and Natural Selection": ["Describe how life history patterns are influenced by natural selection", "Explain different life history patterns and how different reproductive strategies affect species\u2019 survival"], "45.3 Environmental Limits to Population Growth": ["Explain the characteristics of and differences between exponential and logistic growth patterns", "Give examples of exponential and logistic growth in natural populations", "Describe how natural selection and environmental adaptation led to the evolution of particular life history patterns"], "45.4 Population Dynamics and Regulation": ["Give examples of how the carrying capacity of a habitat may change", "Compare and contrast density-dependent growth regulation and density-independent growth regulation, giving examples", "Give examples of exponential and logistic growth in wild animal populations", "Describe how natural selection and environmental adaptation leads to the evolution of particular life-history patterns"], "45.5 Human Population Growth": ["Discuss exponential human population growth", "Explain how humans have expanded the carrying capacity of their habitat", "Relate population growth and age structure to the level of economic development in different countries", "Discuss the long-term implications of unchecked human population growth"], "45.6 Community Ecology": ["Discuss the predator-prey cycle", "Give examples of defenses against predation and herbivory", "Describe the competitive exclusion principle", "Give examples of symbiotic relationships between species", "Describe community structure and succession"], "45.7 Behavioral Biology: Proximate and Ultimate Causes of Behavior": ["Compare innate and learned behavior", "Discuss how movement and migration behaviors are a result of natural selection", "Discuss the different ways members of a population communicate with each other", "Give examples of how species use energy for mating displays and other courtship behaviors", "Differentiate between various mating systems", "Describe different ways that species learn"], "46.1 Ecology of Ecosystems": ["Describe the basic ecosystem types", "Explain the methods that ecologists use to study ecosystem structure and dynamics", "Identify the different methods of ecosystem modeling", "Differentiate between food chains and food webs and recognize the importance of each"], "46.2 Energy Flow through Ecosystems": ["Describe how organisms acquire energy in a food web and in associated food chains", "Explain how the efficiency of energy transfers between trophic levels affects ecosystem structure and dynamics", "Discuss trophic levels and how ecological pyramids are used to model them"], "46.3 Biogeochemical Cycles": ["Discuss the biogeochemical cycles of water, carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus, and sulfur", "Explain how human activities have impacted these cycles and the potential consequences for Earth"], "47.1 The Biodiversity Crisis": ["Define biodiversity in terms of species diversity and abundance", "Describe biodiversity as the equilibrium of naturally fluctuating rates of extinction and speciation", "Identify historical causes of high extinction rates in Earth\u2019s history"], "47.2 The Importance of Biodiversity to Human Life": ["Identify chemical diversity benefits to humans", "Identify biodiversity components that support human agriculture", "Describe ecosystem services"], "47.3 Threats to Biodiversity": ["Identify significant threats to biodiversity", "Explain the effects of habitat loss, the introduction of exotic species, and hunting on biodiversity", "Identify the early and predicted effects of climate change on biodiversity"], "47.4 Preserving Biodiversity": ["Identify new technologies and methods for describing biodiversity", "Explain the legislative framework for conservation", "Describe principles and challenges of conservation preserve design", "Identify examples of the effects of habitat restoration", "Discuss the role of zoos in biodiversity conservation"]}